Student perceptions of and expectations for male and female instructors: Evidence relating to the question of gender bias in teaching evaluation.

253 undergraduates completed a course evaluation questionnaire that included formal teaching performance ratings, perceptual orientation scales, and indicators of degree and context of student–instructor contact. Ss represented 11 female-instructed courses and 28 male-instructed courses. Male and female instructors were found to be placed within a unitary perceptual frame of reference. Female instructors were perceived as warmer and more potent individuals, but were required by the Ss to offer greater interpersonal support and were judged more closely than male instructors in providing it. Results suggest that although direct gender bias may not be observed in formal student evaluations of their instructors, female faculty members are nonetheless subject to culturally conditioned gender stereotypes. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptions of European American and African American instructors teaching race-focused courses.

In 2 studies (N = 907), we developed and validated the Perceptions of Diversity Instructors (PDI-32) measure, which assesses college students' ratings of instructors teaching a race-focused diversity course. We also explored how the professor's race/ethnicity, students' attitudes toward similarities and differences, and perceived professor bias influenced students' ratings. Supporting the source effects outlined in the persuasion literature and prior qualitative research, the results indicated that students expect African American instructors to be more biased (subjective/judgmental) but assume European American instructors to have less content expertise (inexpert/unaware). Also, students who are more open to discussing diversity issues rated the instructors more positively. Finally, students' expectation of professor bias mediated the relationship between the professor's race/ethnicity and students' evaluations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of anxiety, curiosity, and perceived instructor threat on student verbal behavior in the college classroom.

Investigated the verbal behavior of 152 undergraduates in 4 different classes. Trait anxiety, trait curiosity, and perceived instructor threat were measured by the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory, the State–Trait Curiosity Inventory, and the Tuckman Teacher Feedback Form. Student-initiated questions and responses to instructor questions were rated by trained observers during 8 1-hr class sessions. In general, males gave more responses than females, and Ss who perceived their instructors as threatening gave fewer responses than those who rated their instructors as nonthreatening. High curiosity stimulated student-initiated verbal behavior for both sexes, but only when the instructor was perceived as nonthreatening. For males, high anxiety inhibited the students' responses to instructor questions when the instructor was perceived as threatening, whereas females gave few responses to instructor questions regardless of their personality characteristics. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A training framework and follow-up observations for multiculturally inclusive teaching: Is believing that we are emphasizing diversity enough?

The authors present a theoretically and empirically grounded training for multiculturally inclusive teaching for new instructors. After implementing this training, qualitative data were gathered from instructors to identify their experience of the training and concerns related to incorporating issues of diversity into their classrooms (Study 1). At the end of the semester immediately following the training, quantitative data were gathered from instructors and their students to examine the interaction between students’ and instructors’ perceived diversity emphasis (Study 2). When allowed to choose the extent to which they incorporated issues of diversity in their classes, the instructors differentially reported emphasizing diversity in class. In addition, results from multilevel linear modeling analyses demonstrated that instructors’ reported emphasis on diversity in the classroom did not predict students’ perceptions of the inclusion of issues of diversity. The authors discuss implications for the development of multiculturally supportive programs of learning at universities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attribution, affect, and college exam performance.

Results of a questionnaire study with 207 college students show that Ss attributed their own performance and the performance of the average student to ability, test difficulty, preparation, and luck. Consistent with the self-serving bias hypothesis, successful Ss perceived internal factors as more important causes and unsuccessful Ss perceived external factors as more important causes of their own performance than the performance of the average student. Furthermore, successful Ss saw internal and stable factors as more important causes of others' outcomes (as well as their own) than did unsuccessful Ss. Ss' anxiety about their performance and their ratings of the course and instructor were systematically, albeit weakly, linked with specific causal attributions. The implications of these causal inferences and affective responses in the educational context are discussed. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Students' perceptions of classroom activities: Are there grade-level and gender differences?

The authors investigated whether differences existed in perceptions of class activities for students in Grades 3-8 and between genders. Specifically, the frequency that students perceived opportunities for interest, challenge, choice, and enjoyment in their classrooms was assessed using the affective instrument, My Class Activities (M. Gentry & R. K. Gable, 2001). Significant main effects existed for grade level and gender, with no interaction of the 2 variables. In general, middle school students found their classroom activities less frequently interesting and enjoyable, with fewer opportunities for choice, than did elementary students. These variables declined steadily from lower to upper grades. Girls indicated that their class activities were more frequently interesting and enjoyable than did boys, which contributed to the significant gender differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When leaders harass: The impact of target perceptions of organizational leadership and climate on harassment reporting and outcomes.

Using cases of harassment by leaders, the authors examined the effects of target perceptions of leader responses to sexual harassment and whether leader implementation of harassment policies made a difference beyond the impact of the policies themselves. Results showed that women who perceived that leaders made honest efforts to stop harassment felt significantly freer to report harassment, were more satisfied with the complaint process, and reported greater commitment than did those viewing leaders as more harassment tolerant. Different leadership levels had different effects, with hierarchically proximal leaders generally having the greatest impact. Leadership mediated the relationship between organizational policy and outcomes, supporting the view that a key role for leaders is establishing an ethical organizational climate that reinforces formal harassment policies through actions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Noncompulsory versus legally mandated placement, perceived choice, and response to treatment among adolescents.

Explored the hypotheses that positive responses to social rehabilitation interventions are associated more with noncompulsory than with court-referred placement and that degree of compulsory referral is significantly related to degree of perceived choice. Treatment progress and attitudes, especially perceptions of choice, were assessed for 55 13–18 yr olds, in a residential facility. Assessments included self-reports and counselor reports. A significant relationship was found between perceived choice regarding initial placement and informed consent procedures. Treatment attitudes and progress did not differ with regard to initial placement conditions. However, progress was significantly related to perceived choice about remaining in treatment. Findings suggest that subjective reports of choice are (a) initially influenced more by informal consent processes than by source of referral, (b) subsequentially mediated by experiences in treatment, and (c) better indicators of response to a program than are objective categorizations of degree of choice. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in children's altruistic behavior and reputations for helpfulness.

Examined sex differences in altruism by administering reputation and behavioral measures to 279 5th and 6th graders. Ss' reputations for altruism were assessed with teacher ratings and a classroom sociometric task. Altruistic behavior was measured with 6 classroom tasks that provided Ss with opportunities to help other Ss. Girls scored significantly higher than did boys on both reputation tasks and on a composite reputation score. Girls also scored significantly higher than did boys on 2 of the behavioral tasks and on the composite behavioral measure. Thus, although girls were perceived as much more helpful than boys, the behavioral differences were of a lesser magnitude. Results replicate closely those reported by H. Hartshorne et al (1929). (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disentangling the effects of voice: The incremental roles of opportunity, behavior, and instrumentality in predicting procedural fairness.

Many voice studies have failed to distinguish among voice opportunity, perceived voice opportunity, voice behavior, and voice instrumentality. Thus, the authors sought to clarify the roles of each in determining procedural fairness perceptions. Controlling for the effect of voice opportunity, each of the 3 remaining constructs was hypothesized to predict fairness. Furthermore, voice instrumentality was hypothesized to moderate the effect of voice behavior on fairness. Undergraduates (N=102; 81 for some analyses) participated in an orientation-week design simulation in which voice opportunity was manipulated. The results indicated significant incremental effects of perceived voice opportunity and the predicted Voice Instrumentality × Voice Behavior interaction. Fairness was lowest for individuals who were denied voice opportunity, perceived less voice opportunity, and provided high levels of noninstrumental voice behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Origins and pawns in the classroom: Self-report and projective assessments of individual differences in children's perceptions.

Two studies examined the significance of children's perceptions of their classroom environment along autonomy vs external control dimensions. Study 1 related a self-report measure of the perceived classroom climate—R. deCharms's (1976) origin climate questionnaire—to other self-related constructs. Among 140 4th–6th graders, the more "origin" the Ss perceived in their classroom, the higher their perceived self-worth, cognitive competence, internal control, and mastery motivation, and the lower their perceived control by unknown sources or powerful others. These relationships were primarily due to individual differences within classrooms rather than average classroom differences. Ss also wrote projective stories about an ambiguous classroom scene. Ratings of these stories indicated that originlike behavior in Ss' fantasy was associated with autonomy-oriented teachers and low aggression. Self-report and projective methods converged, particularly for Ss whose self-reported perceptions were extreme. In Study 2, with 578 Ss, relative contributions of classroom and individual difference effects were further examined. Results are discussed in terms of the importance of perceived autonomy and issues in assessment strategies. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender-related biases in evaluations of sex discrimination allegations: Is perceived threat the key?

Hypotheses derived from defensive attribution theory and social identity theory were tested in 3 laboratory experiments examining the effects of plaintiff and observer gender on perceived threat, plaintiff identification, and sex discrimination. In Study 1, women differentiated plaintiffs on the basis of gender, whereas men did not. Study 2 showed that this bias occurred because employment discrimination was personally threatening to women but not to men. In Study 3, the bias was reversed in a child custody context. As predicted, men found this context to be significantly more threatening than did women and subsequently exhibited a similarity bias. Mediation analyses suggested that responsibility attributions explained most of the variance in discrimination judgments associated with the plaintiff gender by observer gender interactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A multimethod comparison of popular and unpopular children.

Differences between 101 popular and unpopular 3rd and 4th graders were assessed by teacher reports, classroom observations, the Peabody Individual Achievement Test, the Children's Depression Inventory, ratings on role-play situations, interviews that elicited information on Ss' knowledge of social skills, and responses to hypothetical situations. Unpopular Ss were perceived as being more depressed and deviant by teachers than were popular Ss. Classroom observations indicated that unpopular Ss spent significantly less time on-task than popular Ss and engaged in significantly more negative interactions. There was a trend for popular Ss to perform at a higher academic level than unpopular Ss, and the latter Ss were more depressed than Ss in the former group. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in counseling skills during graduate and undergraduate study.

Compared 13 graduate students in a 1-yr counseling psychology program with 13 psychology undergraduates. 20-min counseling sessions were held on a pre- and postacademic year basis, and counselor verbal responses were analyzed using the C. E. Hill et al (1981) counselor verbal response category system. Undergraduate and graduate Ss both decreased their use of minimal encouragers and increased their information responses, closed questions, and restatements. Graduate-trained Ss used more open questions and more confrontations and tended to use fewer interpretations than did undergraduates when postinterview responses were compared with preinterview responses. Undergraduates increasingly used other responses, whereas graduates virtually eliminated these irrelevant responses from their postyear verbal behavior. In addition to changes in verbal behavior, graduates increased their inner-directedness and self-acceptance as measured by the Personal Orientation Inventory. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex and gender in the college classroom: A quantitative analysis of faculty–student interactions and perceptions.

Students and instructors from 24 classrooms across 8 departments at a major university were observed in this study to (a) assess for sex differences in faculty–student interactions and in students' perceptions of their college classroom environment, (b) compare student perceptions of their college classroom interaction patterns with observed faculty–student interactions, and (c) assess a variety of demographic characteristics together to determine their singular and/or interactive effects on faculty–student interaction patterns and student perceptions. Male and female students did not differ in their classroom participation or perceptions, and instructors did not interact differently with the male and female students. Student perceptions strongly correlated with their own behaviors and with instructor behaviors. Classroom interactions and student perceptions varied on the basis of different demographic characteristics including instructor sex, class size, instructor monitoring of gender–race equity in the classroom, gender relevance of the course, and the sex ratio of the class. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship perceptions and persistence: Do fluctuations in perceived partner commitment undermine dating relationships?

The authors propose specific temporal profiles that reflect certainty versus doubt about where a partner stands with respect to a dating relationship over time. Two multiwave longitudinal studies focused on within-participant changes in perceived partner commitment. Results from multilevel modeling indicate that individuals whose perceptions of partner commitment fluctuate over time were more likely to be in a relationship that eventually ended than were individuals whose perceptions remained relatively steady. For individuals in recently initiated relationships, the association of fluctuation in perceived partner commitment with later breakup was significant regardless of the initial level of perceived partner commitment or the trend, and for all participants, it remained significant when initial level, trend over time, and fluctuation over time of other meaningful variables were controlled. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does math self-efficacy mediate the effect of the perceived classroom environment on standardized math test performance?

We examined the effect of the perceived classroom environment on math self-efficacy and the effect of math self-efficacy on standardized math test performance. Upper elementary school students (N = 1,163) provided self-reports of their perceived math self-efficacy and the degree to which their math classroom environment was mastery oriented, challenging, and caring. Individual student scores on the California Standards Test for Mathematics were also collected. A series of 2-level models revealed that students who perceived their classroom environments as more caring, challenging, and mastery oriented had significantly higher levels of math self-efficacy, and higher levels of math self-efficacy positively predicted math performance. Analysis of the indirect effects of classroom variables on math performance indicated a small significant mediating effect of self-efficacy. Implications for research on self-efficacy and the perceived classroom environment are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)