Time resolved cathodoluminescence in the scanning electron microscope by use of the streak technique

Minority carrier lifetime is one of the basic material properties in optoelectronic devices and material. Both the micrometer range dimensions of the devices and lifetime variations around defects in materials require a lifetime measurement technique with both high spatial and high temporal resolution. In order to meet these requirements a highly efficient cathodoluminescence (CL) measurement system has been developed consisting of a commercial scanning electron microscope extended for integral and spectral CL-measurements and a streak camera with subnanosecond time resolution as time resolving detector. The lifetime is determined by evaluation of CL-decay time after excitation of the specimen by an electron beam pulse, which is blanked in less than 50 ps by an adjustable plate capacitor. The CL-light is collected by an adjustable, ellipsoidal mirror and can be dispersed in a vacuum monochromator. The monochromator exit slit is imaged on to the photocathode of the streak camera, which transforms the temporal distribution of the photon intensity into a lateral distribution on the camera phosphor screen after amplification by an integrated microchannel plate. By this technique it is possible to record the complete CL-decay simultaneously, thus avoiding all measurement falsifications by system instabilities. The resulting intensity distribution is read out by a SIT vidicon camera with subsequent multichannel analyser, providing an intensity plot versus streak time in less then 1 min for each beam spot location. The technique is therefore well suited for lifetime mapping experiments. The best time resolution of the complete system achieved today is about 100 ps. Its performance is here demonstrated by measurements of the temperature dependence of the CL-decay in a highly Se-doped GaAs specimen in the temperature range from 90 K to 300 K.     

宽谱段空间外差干涉光谱仪

研究了基于中阶梯光栅多级衍射特性实现谱段展宽的宽谱段空间外差干涉光谱仪的基础理论和系统设计方法。阐述了宽谱段空间外差干涉光谱仪的特点,分析了仪器性能指标(光谱分辨率、光谱范围、视场、信噪比、衍射级次等)与初始光学和电子学参数(光栅、视场棱镜、成像系统、探测器等)之间的理论关系。然后,设计并搭建了宽谱段空间外差干涉光谱仪实验平台,该系统的理论光谱分辨率为0.173cm-1@16 950cm-1,光谱区为500~700nm。最后,给出了激光(543.5nm、632.8nm)、Na灯(589nm、589.6nm)、Hg灯(576.96nm、579.07nm)光源的宽谱段实验结果,其复原光谱的平均波数采样间隔为0.17cm-1;光谱复原过程中采用三角切趾函数,平均光谱分辨率为0.39cm-1。实验结果与理论设计符合良好,且复原谱各级次之间的对应关系与光栅方程确定的理论关系完全符合。     

一种分析视频眼镜图像清晰度的新方法

依据光学传递函数与级联光学传递函数理论,通过CCD相机拍摄视频眼镜显示的ISO12233分辨率测试图像卡,运用Imatest软件分析视频眼镜中光学成像系统的质量和图像分辨率(SFR)参数。对Google Glass,Epson BT-200,Optinvent ORA-1,奥图科技Cool Glass One以及Raypai的几种视频眼镜进行了测试与分析,获得每一种视频眼镜的图像分辨率调制传递函数(MTF)结果并进行比较。MTF结果与实际视觉观测结果基本相符,表明这种测试方法与Imatest软件分析计算的正确性。     

中阶梯光栅分光光路的设计

为了实现更宽波段范围内的全谱直读并获得较高的分辨率,对中阶梯光栅光谱仪的分光系统进行了研究。简述了中阶梯光栅与中阶梯光栅光谱仪的基本原理,分析了中阶梯光谱仪和普通光谱仪的区别,详细论述了一种利用中阶梯光栅作为主要分光元件,棱镜作为交叉色散原件的中阶梯光栅分光光路的设计方法,并最终在探测面上得到了可探测分析的二维谱图。通过对设计过程的详细论述,可以为今后从事中阶梯光栅光谱仪光学设计的研究者提供参考。     

A New Method of Non-Contact Measurement for Microtopography in Semiconductor Wafer Implementing a New Optical Probe Based on the Precision Defocus Measurement

In this paper, a new method of non-contact measurement has been developed for 3D topography for a semiconductor wafer, implementing a new optical probe based on precision defocus measurement. The developed technique consists of the new optical probe, precision stages, and the measurement/control system. The basic principle of the technique is to use the reflected slit beam from the specimen surface to measure the deviation of the specimen surface. The defocusing distance can be measured by the reflected slit beam, where the defocused image is measured by the proposed optical probe, giving very high resolution. A distance measuring formula has been proposed for the developed probe, using the laws of geometric optics. A precision calibration technique has been applied, giving about 10 nm resolution and 72 nm four-sigma uncertainty. In order to quantitise the micro pattern on the specimen surface, some efficient analysis algorithms have been developed to analyse the 3D topography pattern and some parameters of the surface. The developed system has been successfully applied to measure the wafer surface, demonstrating the line scanning feature and the excellent 3D measurement capability.     

星载多光谱CCD相机研究

研制的星载多光谱 CCD相机采用线阵 CCD推扫方式成像 ,具有蓝、绿、红、近红外、全色五个成像谱段 ,在轨工作时地面像元分辨率为 2 0米 ,覆盖宽度 113公里。相机光学系统采用单镜头焦面分色结构实现多光谱成像 ,每个谱段的探测器阵列由 3片 2 0 4 8元 CCD光学拼接而成 ,以实现地面宽覆盖成像。多片 CCD信号采用串行读出方式 ,使焦面 15片 CCD形成两路视频信号输出给数据传输系统。测试结果显示 ,相机各谱段 MTF典型值为 0 .2 5 ,满足使用要求。     

Recording and controlling the 4D light field in a microscope using microlens arrays

By inserting a microlens array at the intermediate image plane of an optical microscope, one can record four-dimensional light fields of biological specimens in a single snapshot. Unlike a conventional photograph, light fields permit manipulation of viewpoint and focus after the snapshot has been taken, subject to the resolution of the camera and the diffraction limit of the optical system. By inserting a second microlens array and video projector into the microscope's illumination path, one can control the incident light field falling on the specimen in a similar way. In this paper, we describe a prototype system we have built that implements these ideas, and we demonstrate two applications for it: simulating exotic microscope illumination modalities and correcting for optical aberrations digitally.     

基于凹面光栅的可调高分辨率单色仪结构设计及波长重复性分析

凹面光栅兼具成像和色散的能力,采用凹面光栅分光的单色仪能够很好实现小型化设计和应用到低于200 nm的真空紫外波段。光谱分辨率和波长重复性是单色仪的重要指标,针对单色仪的光谱分辨率,本文将光栅固有分辨率和由狭缝引起的增宽相结合推导出单色仪的光谱分辨率计算模型,利用自研微动狭缝进行实验验证,单色仪分辨率符合理论模型,极限分辨率优于0.1 nm;针对单色仪的波长重复性,在单色仪光机结构参数转换的基础上对波长重复性影响因素进行分析,推导出单色仪的波长重复性计算模型,利用汞灯作为光源进行波长重复性验证其波长重复性优于0.02 nm符合理论计算模型,验证了光机结构设计的有效性和理论分析的正确性。     

Precision thickness and refractive index imaging of molecular films

We present an interferometric contrasting technique that allows visualizing the thickness and refractive index of a molecular film being part of an optical multilayer structure (etalon). Small wavelength shifts of the comblike etalon spectrum are transformed into measurable intensity variations using a second reference etalon (optical correlator), illuminated in series. A charge-coupled device camera acting as two-dimensional photometer is utilized to measure the optical spectral correlation (OSC) image. The performance of the here proposed optical spectral correlation method is demonstrated using very thin confined liquid films. We give a detailed signal-to-noise analysis. Subangstrom film thickness resolution is experimentally verified with single exposure images acquired at frame rates comparable to video standards (approximately 25 Hz). Finally, we describe the calibration procedures necessary to obtain an absolute quantification of the OSC image.     

中阶梯光栅光谱仪的光学设计

为了在更宽波段范围内获得较高的分辨率,实现全谱直读,对中阶梯光栅光谱仪进行了研究。简述了中阶梯光栅及中阶梯光栅光谱仪的基本原理,分析并比较了这种光谱仪与普通平面闪耀光栅光谱仪的区别。利用光学成像原理与消像差理论设计了Czerney-Turner结构形式的中型高分辨率中阶梯光栅光谱仪原理样机的光学系统。该光学系统工作在原子谱线最为密集的200～500nm波长处;为简化计算,在设计中消除了350nm波长的所有像差;光线对中阶梯光栅在准Littrow条件下入射,以获得高衍射效率;使用折反射棱镜作为交叉色散元件来分离重叠的级次,在CCD探测器上获得了二维光谱面。该光学系统有较好的平场特性及点对点成像能力,在整个工作波长分辨率可达到2000～15000,满足设计要求。该仪器可用于原子发射和吸收光谱的研究工作,通过替换不同的探测器及增加外围电路与软件平台,仪器的工作性能可进一步提高。     

Offner双镜三反射成像光谱仪分辨率的研究

针对Offner双镜三反射成像光谱仪的消像差结构,采用几何方法推导出光谱分辨率的计算公式,分析了入射狭缝的宽度、凸面光栅分辨率、系统像差和探测器像元尺寸各个参数对光谱分辨率的影响,提出了分光系统像差的计算方法和优化设计方法,并探讨了提高光谱分辨率的方法和技术,即在优化系统像差的同时,适当减小狭缝宽度和探测器像元尺寸,有利于提高系统的光谱分辨率。该系统利用消像差优化设计同时考虑光谱分辨率的设计方法,具有十分重要的实用价值,为成像光谱仪的研制提供经验和借鉴。     

Offner成像光谱仪的消像差技术

介绍了基于同心结构的Offner成像光谱仪光学系统的工作原理、结构特点及优势,综述了Offner型成像光谱仪在国内外的研究进展。较详细地介绍了国内外目前常用的三种消像差方式,即通过改变光学元件装调结构实现消像差,基于单光栅像差理论的解析方法进行消像差以及通过设计凸面全息光栅来提高光谱图像的分辨率。文中总结了Offner成像光谱仪存在的关键问题及发展趋势,强调该系统需要解决的问题的是消除系统像差,提高系统光谱分辨率、空间分辨率和对弱信号的探测能力,其发展方向为更高的分辨率和探测能力以及系统的小型化和轻量化。基于对Offner成像光谱仪的研究,文中提出了一种从凸面全息光栅与光谱仪一体化设计的角度进行消像差的思路。     

基于闪耀光栅图形化实现高分辨率干涉光刻

为提高图形化干涉光刻质量,提出了基于闪耀光栅的图形化干涉光刻(PIIL)系统,并对该系统所采用的光学原理和实现方法进行了研究。首先,分析了图形化干涉光刻系统的光场特性,阐述了其分辨率提升的原理。讨论了光学系统带宽和图案分布对光刻图形质量的影响,给出了图形质量控制的工艺方法。其次,提出了一种新型的图形化干涉光刻方法,该方法采用闪耀光栅作为衍射分光器件,实现了位相和振幅的一体化调制。采用数值计算方法模拟了闪耀光栅的衍射特性和像面光场分布,讨论了闪耀光栅的优化设计方法,获得了高达92.3%的±1级衍射效率。最后,基于数字微镜器件(DMD)和微缩成像光路设计开发了图形化干涉光刻系统,实验获得了像素化的点阵图形和质量明显改善的光刻图像,验证了该方法对任意图形的适用性。     

高光谱短波红外地物光谱仪的光机设计

基于平场凹面光栅分光和线列阵探测器探测的最新设计方案,进行了短波红外波段地物光谱仪的光机设计。仪器采用光纤导光,两个独立单元分别探测,最大限度地简化了光学及结构设计。更换前置光学系统改变探测视场, 视场内的辐射经过前置光学系统均匀地照亮入射光纤,保证了两探测单元的视场相同。根据入射光通量、光谱分辨率和狭缝的关系确定入射狭缝的大小,仪器光谱覆盖900~2 400 nm,光谱分辨率优于12 nm,适合野外短波红外波段的探测。     

Advanced experimental applications for x-ray transmission gratings spectroscopy using a novel grating fabrication method

A novel fabrication method for soft x-ray transmission grating and other optical elements is presented. The method uses focused-ion-beam technology to fabricate high-quality free standing grating bars on transmission electron microscopy grids. High quality transmission gratings are obtained with superb accuracy and versatility. Using these gratings and back-illuminated CCD camera, absolutely calibrated x-ray spectra can be acquired for soft x-ray source diagnostics in the 100-3000 eV spectral range. Double grating combinations of identical or different parameters are easily fabricated, allowing advanced one-shot application of transmission grating spectroscopy. These applications include spectroscopy with different spectral resolutions, bandwidths, dynamic ranges, and may serve for identification of high-order contribution, and spectral calibrations of various x-ray optical elements.     

Improvement in the resolution of three-dimensional data sets collected using optical serial sectioning

In this paper an approach for improving the quality of 3-D microscopic images obtained through optical serial sectioning is described and implemented. A serially sectioned image is composed of a sequence of 2-D images obtained by incrementing the focusing plane of the microscope through the specimen of interest; ideally, the image obtained at each focusing plane should be in focus, and should contain information lying only within that plane. In practice, however, the images obtained contain redundant information from neighbouring focusing planes and are blurred by a three-dimensional low-pass distortion. These degradations are a consequence of the limited aperture of any optical system; using principles of geometric optics and allowing for the passage of light through the specimen, we are able to demonstrate that the microscope distortion can be described as a linear system, if the absorption of the specimen is assumed to be linear and non-diffractive. The transfer function of the microscope is found to zero a biconic region of 3-D spatial frequencies orientated along the optical axis; a closed-form expression is derived for the low-pass transfer function of the microscope outside the region of missing frequencies. The planar resolution of the serial sections can be greatly improved by convolving the image obtained with the inverse of the low-pass distortion function, although the missing cone of frequencies is not recoverable. The reconstruction technique is demonstrated using both simulated images, to demonstrate more clearly the effects of the distortion and the accuracy of the subsequent reconstruction, and actual experiments with a pollen grain and a stained preparation of human cerebellum tissue.     

多波长激发高分辨率微型拉曼光谱仪设计

针对不同激光波长激发测试样品所需拉曼光谱范围的差异性问题,同时为了保证拉曼光谱仪的小型化及高分辨率需求,提出一种以Czerny-Turner光路结构为基础的微型拉曼光谱仪,通过Zemax光学设计软件对光谱仪的准直镜、聚焦镜、柱面镜、光栅以及CCD的倾角及距离进行了优化。该仪器激光波长为633 nm,光谱范围为640～800 nm。进一步优化光栅旋转角度并配合聚焦镜,可使此光学系统同时适用于激光波长532 nm、光谱范围540～650 nm和激光波长785 nm、光谱范围790～1 000 nm两个波段。拉曼光谱仪分辨率为0.1 nm,该光谱仪在保证高分辨率的情况下解决了不同波段范围光学结构差异性大而导致光机设计很难整合在一起的问题。     

A simple video method for the quantification of microscopic objects

The design and operation of a simple, semi-automatic video system for the analysis of geometric parameters of microscopic specimens is described. The system consists of standard video equipment and a custom built Electronic Integrator. The video signal from a camera attached to a microscope is mixed with the video signal from a second camera focused on a drawing board. A contour outline of the specimen to be analysed is drawn with the aid of a video monitor display of the combined images. The contour image is passed into the Electronic Integrator and analysed automatically. Logic circuitry in the Electronic Integrator permits analysis of complex contours independent of their orientation in the video raster. The area or volume of complex, overlapping specimens with restricted grey scale range can be rapidly analysed. The Electronic Integrator also is suitable for densitometric and specimen motion analyses.     

激光聚变冲击波被动式测速光学系统设计

针对激光聚变装置冲击波速度被动测量的需求,设计了一种测速光学系统。采用高紫外透过率的氟化玻璃,实现了透射式300～800nm复消色差设计。系统光路具有前后两组镜头,中间为平行光,镜头间距可变,光路适应能力强。系统前端两侧的双目机器视觉能够完成自动寻的。平行光路中设置5个激光器,轴上的1个前向照明靶点用来观察条纹相机狭缝处的目标像质,轴外的4个与光轴平行后向传输用来标识系统光轴的位置,激光器部件可电动切入/切出。系统前组镜头F/#数为4,宽谱工作物方分辨率优于10μm,532nm单波长工作物方分辨优于5μm。该光学系统光路排布灵活,可单独被动测速,也可与主动测速系统VISAR耦合构成主被一体复合测速系统,满足激光聚变装置冲击波测速的需求。     

A line-scanning semi-confocal multi-photon fluorescence microscope with a simultaneous broadband spectral acquisition and its application to the study of the thylakoid membrane of a cyanobacterium Anabaena PCC7120

We describe the construction and characterization of a laser‐line‐scanning microscope capable of detection of broad fluorescence spectra with a resolution of 1 nm. A near‐infrared femtosecond pulse train at 800 nm was illuminated on a line (one lateral axis, denoted as X axis) in a specimen by a resonant scanning mirror oscillating at 7.9 kHz, and total multi‐photon–induced fluorescence from the linear region was focused on the slit of an imaging polychromator. An electron‐multiplying CCD camera was used to resolve fluorescence of different colours at different horizontal pixels and fluorescence of different spatial positions in a specimen at different vertical pixels. Scanning on the other two axes (Y and Z) was achieved by a closed‐loop controlled sample scanning stage and a piezo‐driven objective actuator. The full widths at half maximum of the point‐spread function of the system were estimated to be 0.39–0.40, 0.33 and 0.56–0.59 μm for the X (lateral axis along the line‐scan), Y (the other lateral axis) and Z axes (the axial direction), respectively, at fluorescence wavelengths between 644 and 690 nm. A biological application of this microscope was demonstrated in a study of the sub‐cellular fluorescence spectra of thylakoid membranes in a cyanobacterium, Anabaena PCC7120. It was found that the fluorescence intensity ratio between chlorophyll molecules mainly of photosystem II and phycobilin molecules of phycobilisome (chlorophyll/phycobilin), in the thylakoid membranes, became lower as one probed deeper inside the cells. This was attributable not to position dependence of re‐absorption or scattering effects, but to an intrinsic change in the local physiological state of the thylakoid membrane, with the help of a transmission spectral measurement of sub‐cellular domains. The efficiency of the new line‐scanning spectromicroscope was estimated in comparison with our own point‐by‐point scanning spectromicroscope. Under typical conditions of observing cyanobacterial cells, the total exposure time became shorter by about 50 times for a constant excitation density. The improvement factor was proportional to the length of the line‐scanned region, as expected.