Deposition and spectral performance of an inhomogeneous broadband wide-angular antireflective coating

Gradient index coatings and optical filters are a challenge for fabrication. In a round-robin experiment, basically the same hybrid antireflection coating for the visible spectral region, combining homogeneous refractive index layers of pure materials and linear gradient refractive index layers of material mixtures, has been deposited. The experiment involved three different deposition techniques: electron-beam evaporation, ion-beam sputtering, and radio frequency magnetron sputtering. The material combinations used by these techniques were Nb(2)O(5)/SiO(2), TiO(2)/SiO(2), and Ta(2)O(5)/SiO(2), respectively. The spectral performances of samples coated on one side and on both sides have been compared to the corresponding theoretical spectra of the designed profile. Also, the reproducibility of results for each process is verified. Finally, it is shown that ion-beam sputtering gave the best results in terms of deviation from the theoretical performance and reproducibility.     

浮法玻璃表面光学常数分析

本文通过光谱椭偏仪测量浮法玻璃空气面和锡面的偏振信息,利用Cauchy光学模型分析得到浮法玻璃两表面的布鲁斯特角和光学常数,分析结果表明浮法玻璃空气面、锡面、理想玻璃界面的布鲁斯特角分别为56.7°、57°和56.8°,空气面形成疏松的表面层,厚度为2.75nm,折射率小于玻璃本底,锡面形成锡扩散表面层,厚度为81.29nm,折射率大于玻璃本底折射率,并且随厚度呈现出非线性梯度变化,结合透光率数据分析得到玻璃消光系数在10-6量级。由于浮法玻璃空气面和锡面的折射率明显不同,需要在后续玻璃镀膜光学设计时区别对待。     

Evolution of graded refractive index in squid lenses.

A lens with a graded refractive index is required for vision in aquatic animals with camera-type eyes. This optical design entails a radial gradient of protein density, with low density in external layers and high density in internal layers. To maintain the optical stability of the eye, different material properties are required for proteins in different regions of the lens. In low-density regions of the lens where slight protein aggregation causes significant light scattering, aggregation must be minimized. Squid lens S-crystallin proteins are evolutionarily derived from the glutathione S-transferase protein family. We used biochemistry, optical modelling and phylogenetics to study the evolution and material properties of S-crystallins. S-crystallins are differentially expressed in a radial gradient, suggesting a role in refractive index. This gradient in S-crystallin expression is correlated with their evolutionary history and biochemistry. S-crystallins have been under positive selection. This selection appears to have resulted in stabilization of derived S-crystallins via mutations in the dimer interface and extended electrostatic fields. These derived S-crystallins probably cause the glassy organization and stability of low refractive index lens layers. Our work elucidates the molecular and evolutionary mechanisms underlying the production and maintenance of camera-like optics in squid lenses.     

Chemical and electrical properties of HMDSO plasma coated polyimide

In this work, surface properties of polyimide (PI) films coated by thin layers deposited from pure hexamethyldisiloxane (HMDSO) vapours in low frequency powered plasma reactor have been investigated. The polymer thin layers were elaborated at different plasma treatment times. The surface characterization of the coated PI film is performed using attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), refractive index, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), water droplet contact angle measurements and surface potential decay. The high carbon content revealed by ATR-FTIR analysis makes the coated surface PI films more hydrophobic. The water contact angle increased from 63° for untreated film to 115° after 10 min of HMDSO plasma coating. The coated PI surfaces were found to stay practically unchanged following storage of the samples in ambient conditions, indicating stable hydrophobic surface treatments. The increase of the refractive index indicates less porous structure. Scanning electron microscopy images showed a homogenous coating without crack. Surface potential evolution after corona charge deposition showed the retention of deposited charges at the surface of coated PI film. Correlation between these different analysis techniques results has been discussed.     

Step method: a new synthesis method for the design of optical filters with intermediate refractive indices

We propose a new synthesis method for the design of multilayer optical filters with intermediate refractive indices, the step method. This method consists in adding infinitesimally small index steps in the index profile at optimal positions and then reoptimizing the thickness and the refractive index of the layers. Application of the method to the design of an antireflective coating, a low-pass edge filter, and an immersed polarizing beam splitter shows that it provides interesting solutions, even in the absence of a proper starting design. The formalism developed for the method also serves to demonstrate that the optimal filter consists of either homogeneous layers that maximize the effective refractive index contrast, or of graded-index layers.     

Estimation of the average residual reflectance of broadband antireflection coatings

We deal with optimal two-material antireflection (AR) coatings for the visible and adjacent spectral regions. It has been shown before that, for a given set of input parameters (refractive indices of the substrate, ambient medium and high- and low-index coating materials, and for a given spectral width of the AR coating), such designs consist of one or more clusters of layers of approximately constant optical thickness and number of layers. We show that, through the analysis of many different optimal coatings, it is possible to derive two parameters for a simple empirical expression that relates the residual average reflectance in the AR region to the number of clusters. These parameters are given for all possible combinations of relative spectral bandwidth equal to 2, 3, and 4; low-index to ambient-medium index ratio equal to 1.38 and 1.45; and high-to-low index ratio equal to 1.4, 1.5, and 1.7. The agreement between the numerically and the empirically calculated values of residual average reflectance is excellent. From the information presented the optical thin-film designer can quickly calculate the required number of layers and the overall optical thickness of an AR coating having the desired achievable residual average reflectance.     

界面梯度对TiN／不锈钢涂层应力的影响

气相沉积表面涂层在科学技术各领域得到广泛应用，然而，由于涂层与基体在化学和物理性质上的差异，使得涂层与基体在界面两侧产生结构和性能上的突变，影响了涂层功能的充分发挥。为此，采用多靶磁控溅射技术制备了具有梯度过渡层的ＴｉＮ／不多靶磁控溅射技术制备了具有梯度过渡层的ＴｉＮ／不锈钢涂层，并研究了梯度层对涂层内应力的影响。研究结果表明：采用多靶磁控溅射技术，分别控制各靶的功率，能够精确控制梯度层的成份变化     

渐变折射率分布型塑料光纤的研究

用甲基丙烯酸甲酯(MM A)作为基质,在离心设备上采用界面凝胶聚合技术成功地制备了中空的渐变折射率分布(G I)塑料光纤预制棒,避免了普通的界面凝胶聚合方法制备时容易出现气泡的现象,而且可以得到需要的折射率分布。将这样的空心预制棒在合适的条件下熔融拉丝,即可以得到连续、透明、实心的渐变分布折射率塑料光纤。     

Optical properties of an optically rough coating from inversion of diffuse reflectance measurements

A method is developed for determining the optical properties of an optically rough coating on an opaque substrate from reflectance measurements. A modified Kubelka-Munk two- flux model is used to calculate the reflectance of the coating as a function of the refractive index, absorption coefficient, scattering coefficient, and thickness. The calculated reflectance is then fitted to measurements using a spectral projected gradient algorithm, allowing the optical properties to be obtained. The technique is applied to titanium dioxide coatings on a titanium substrate. Realistic values of refractive index and absorption coefficients are generally obtained. Quantities that are useful for solar water-splitting applications are calculated, including the depth profile of absorption and the proportion of the incident photon flux absorbed in the coating under solar illumination.     

Physikalisch-chemische und mikrobiologische Wirkung gesputterter photokatalytischer Titanoxid-Schichten

Crystalline TiO₂ layers show interesting properties for different applications. Rutile layers can be used as optical layers with high refractive index and as transparent protective layers with good mechanical properties. Both, anatase and rutile are photo-semiconductors and exhibit in a different degree photocatalytic, photo-induced hydrophilic and antifogging properties. For a better control of the TiO₂ deposition and thin film properties a special deposition system has been developed: a reactive pulse magnetron sputtering (PMS) system. Layers with different content of crystalline phases were deposited at dynamic deposition rates of about 45 nm·m/min (corresponding to about 160 nm/min in a stationary coating system). Moreover, the anionic doping of the layers succeeded by nitrogen as well as the cationic doping by different metals. The layer structure was determined by XRD. Furthermore, the following properties connected with photo-induced hydrophilicity or photocatalysis were studied: the photo-induced decrease of the water contact angle, the decomposition of methylene blue and lumogen orange as well as the inhibition of algae and bacteria. By doping the layers some of these properties can be improved significantly in comparison to undoped titanium oxide. Some doped layers showed a high activity also under visible irradiation only without UV.     

Assessment of refractive index gradients by standard rainbow thermometry

Up to now the application of rainbow thermometry has been limited to particle systems possessing a uniform refractive index. This is mostly due to the absence of an appropriate data inversion algorithm that takes into account the presence of a refractive index gradient. In this paper, for the first time to our knowledge, exploiting a generalization of the Airy theory, a data inversion algorithm for a single droplet, presenting a parabolic refractive index gradient, is proposed. This data inversion algorithm is used to compute the diameter and the refractive index at the core and at the surface of a simulated burning droplet. The results are compared to the analytical solutions showing a satisfactory agreement.     

Effects of the peripheral layers on the optical properties of spherical fish lenses

We created a computational optical model of spherical fish lenses that takes into account the effects of the peripheral layers, which differ in cellular composition from the bulk of the lens. A constant refractive index, except for the lens capsule, in the outer about 6% of lens radius made it possible to uniquely infer the refractive index gradient in more central layers from a known or desired longitudinal spherical aberration curve using the inverse Abel transform. Since the zone of constant refractive index is wider than necessary to make the solution unique and for optimal optical performance of the lens, we propose that its width be set by the metabolic needs of the lens.     

Direct numerical inversion method for kinetic ellipsometric data. II. Implementation and experimental verification

A direct numerical inversion method is applied to the monitoring of thin-film growth. Several improvements of the method, including a correction for weakly absorbing materials, are presented. The method has been successfully applied to the inversion of the growth of constant-refractive-index layers andused for the process calibration of plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition of silicon oxynitrides. The validity of this calibration has been successfully tested on a linear index gradient and quintic matching layer between a polycarbonate substrate and a scratch-resistant coating.     

PECVD方法用于梯度薄膜材料的研究

本文研究了ＰＥＣＶＤ方法制备Ｓｉ－Ｏ－Ｍ系梯度薄膜材料，并运用计算机控制技术成功地制备了涂层折射率随膜深成正弦波形式连续变化的Ｒｕｇａｔｅ单通带滤波器样品。结果表明，采用ＰＥＣＶＤ方法可以制备性能上乘、结构复杂的梯度薄膜材料，ＰＥＣＶＤ方法在研究、开发高级光学涂层领域有着宽广的应用前景。     

Development of interference filters based on multilayer porous silicon structures

Porous silicon (PS) has a great potential in optical applications due to its tuneable refractive index. In particular, multilayer structures consisting of alternating PS layers with different refractive indices can be used as interference filters for applications in the field of optoelectronics and sensors. In the present work, the optical properties of PS single layers and multilayer structures were studied. Since the refractive index of PS varies depending on the air content of the porous matrix, the PS structures were modelled as an homogeneous mixture of silicon and air, according to the effective medium theories (EMTs). By adjusting the refractive index and thickness of each individual layer, we can obtain a stack of PS layers with the desired optical properties, resulting in interference filters of predetermined bandwidth.     

Extension of the Williams-Clapper model to stacked nondiffusing colored coatings with different refractive indices

We propose a model for predicting the reflectance and transmittance of multiple stacked nonscattering coloring layers that have different refractive indices. The model relies on the modeling of the reflectance and transmittance of a bounded coloring layer, i.e., a coloring layer and its two interfaces with neighboring media of different refractive indices. This model is then applied to deduce the reflectance of stacked nonscattering layers of different refractive indices superposed with a reflecting diffusing background that has its own refractive index. The classical Williams-Clapper model becomes a special case of the proposed stacked layer model.     

Refractive indices and thicknesses of optical waveguides fabricated by silicon ion implantation into silica glass

Planar optical waveguides formed by Si ion implantation into PECVD SiO₂ have been characterized by the dark mode spectroscopy method at a wavelength of 0.6328 μm. The measured effective index values of the guided modes have been used to investigate the optical properties of the core layers of the waveguides after different pre-implantation treatments. It was found that annealing the specimens before implantation, affected both the refractive index and thickness of the core layers. In the annealed specimens a thicker core layer and a larger relative refractive index difference between the core and the buffer layer resulted.     

Hologram reconstruction corrected for measurements through layers with different refractive indices in digital in-line holographic microscopy

Digital in-line holographic microscopy (DIHM) using point sources has been shown to be a versatile technique, especially for three-dimensional tracking of particles or microorganisms. However, the spherical source wave is altered when measurements are performed through layers with different refractive indices, such as water cuvettes. The situations where a layer of medium with a refractive index different than that of the predominant surrounding propagation medium (usually air) is situated behind or in front of the plane to be reconstructed are analyzed in detail, and a general approach for reconstruction under such circumstances is developed. The proposed refractive index correction is tested experimentally and compared to conventional reconstruction algorithms. Using 3D traces of swimming algal spores, the influence on the velocity calculation is also shown.     

High quality ZnO layers with adjustable refractive indices for integrated optics applications

Thin ( 1 μm) crystalline ZnO films with a good optical quality and good (0002) texture are grown under two considerably different process parameter sets using a r.f. planar magnetron sputtering unit. The optical parameters of the two corresponding ZnO layers are distinctly different: high refractive index ( 2.0 at λ = 632.8 nm) ZnO films resembling the single crystal form, and ZnO films with considerably lower (typical difference 0.05) refractive indices. The refractive index of the latter ZnO layers is adjustable ( 1.93–1.96 at λ = 632.8 nm) through the process deposition parameters. It is shown that the difference in refractive index between the two ZnO types most probably results from a difference in package density of the crystal columns. The optical waveguide losses of both ZnO types are typically 1–3 dB/cm at λ = 632.8 nm, however the low refractive index ZnO layers need a post-deposition anneal step to obtain these values. The two ZnO types are used to fabricate optical channel-and slab waveguides with small refractive index differences.     

Thickness dependence of refractive index and optical gap of PMMA layers prepared under electrical field

Optical parameters (refractive index, dispersion energy, optical gap) of polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) layers prepared by spin coating and modified by electric field have been studied. Refractive index was measured using a refractometer, internal structure was investigated as a structural parameter (E _d) within the One Oscillator Model. Optical gap width (E _g^opt) was assessed using Tauc Approximation from UV-Vis spectra. Surface morphology and roughness was investigated using an AFM. The electric field imposed during preparation of layers increases their refractive index. The highest increase in n (Δn = 0.042) was found for the thinnest PMMA layer (70 nm). Oriented layers have produced higher E _g^opt than non-oriented ones for all studied values of thickness. The electrical field applied at preparation of the oriented layer will not change its surface morphology and roughness.