In vitro effects of urease inhibitors on rate of urea hydrolysis in soils

We studied the effect of urease inhibitors on the urea hydrolysis in some Sundanese soils belonging to the orders of Vertisol and Entisol. The hydrolysis showed a lag period of about 3 days and its rate (Y) per unit time (t) could be described by a two constants exponential equation of the general form Y = K₁t^K ₂. Statistical analysis showed that the intercept K₁ (rate of urea hydrolysis) was significantly affected by soil type rather than treatment. It seems that K₁ is associated with the soils' initial urease activity as it closely correlates with the Michaelis constant (km).The gradient, K₂, being significantly affected by soil type as well as treatment is probably associated with the induced urease activity with time and it, therefore, varied with variations in soils and treatments. Of the so-called urease inhibitors used in this study Ca(OH)₂, p-benzoquinone (PBQ) and orthophosphoric acid (OP) only PBQ reduced urea hydrolysis while the other chemicals have effects possibly related to modifying the soil pH. Inhibitor treated soils had substantial amounts of unacounted for N which was believed to be present, presumably, in the form of carbamate.Contribution from the Department of Biochemistry and Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Shambat, Sudan.     

缓释肥对冬小麦增产与提高氮肥利用率的研究

大田条件下以不施氮肥(CK 1)、尿素基施(CK 2)和尿素基追比1∶1(CK 3)3个处理做对照,对施用3种包膜缓释肥(SRF 1、SRF 2和SRF 3)冬小麦产量、不同时期植株含氮量及肥料利用率进行比较。结果表明:与CK 2相比,3种包膜缓释肥料产量提高3.4%~20.2%,肥料利用率提高7.65%~15.45%,除苗期外其他时期冬小麦的植株含氮量也有所提高,但均比CK 3稍低;3种缓释相比较,SRF I和SRF 2各种指标均优于SRF 3。说明缓释肥一次性施用基本可以满足小麦整个生长期的需要。     

Ammonia volatilization from urea and ammoniacal fertilizers surface applied to winter wheat and grassland

Ammonia volatilization from urea, diammonium phosphate, ammonium sulphate and calcium ammonium nitrate surface applied to winter wheat and grassland was determined with windtunnels. The fertilizers were applied at a rate of 8–12 g N m^–2 to plots on a non-calcareous sandy loam. Five experiments were carried out during March to June 1992, each experiment including 2 to 4 treatments with two or three replications. The daily ammonia loss rate was measured during 15 to 20 days. Cumulated daily loss of ammonia from urea followed a sigmoidal expression, while the cumulated ammonia loss from diammonium phosphate showed a logarithmic relationship with time from application. For ammonium sulphate and calcium ammonium nitrate no significant loss could be determined, because daily loss of ammonia were at the detection limit of the wind tunnels. Mean cumulated ammonia loss from plots receiving urea, diammonium phosphate, ammonium sulphate and calcium ammonium nitrate were 25%, 14%, <5% and <2%, respectively, during a 15–20 day measuring period.     

钙镁磷肥复式包膜尿素对冬小麦产量和氮肥效率的影响

通过连续 3年 ( 1999～ 2 0 0 0年 )大田试验 ,研究了钙镁磷肥复式包膜尿素对冬小麦产量、氮效率〔包括 :氮素效率比 ( NER) ,氮吸收效率 ( NUp E) ,氮素使用效率 ( NUE)和氮肥利用效率 ( Nf UE)〕的影响。结果表明 ,钙镁磷肥复式包膜尿素与普通尿素的生物量、籽粒和秸秆量均显著大于对照处理 ;氮素使用效率 ( NUE)和氮肥利用率均显著高于对照。包膜尿素处理的产量和氮效率最高 ,其籽粒、秸秆、生物量平均值比普通尿素处理分别高 9.0 9%～15 .0 6 %、13.11%～ 14 .96 %、11.73%～ 14 .99% ,氮肥利用率高 15～ 16个百分点。在本试验条件下 ,相对于通常氮肥施用量 ( 15 0 kg N/hm2 ) ,少量增加氮肥施用量 (氮肥用量增加 8% )对产量和氮效率 ( NE)没有显著影响 ;而大量增加氮肥施用量 (增加 2 0 % ) ,能明显增加小麦产量、吸氮量和氮肥利用率     

大颗粒包膜尿素控释肥在冬小麦上的施用效果

在河南驻马店砂姜黑土区及延津潮土区对大颗粒包膜尿素控释肥（CRU）在冬小麦上的施用效果进行了研究.结果表明：相同氮素用量时,大颗粒包膜尿素控释肥比普通尿素（BU）增产,即在100％用量、75％用量及50％用量相比时,驻马店试验增产率为5.7％、10.26％、13.5％,延津试验增产率为3.3％、11.7％、10.4％,增产效果显著.大颗粒包膜尿素控释肥的比表面积较小,可以大量节省包膜材料,减少土壤污染.     

控释尿素在冬小麦上的一次性施肥研究

在驻马店市地力为中、低水平的砂姜黑土上进行冬小麦田间试验,研究控施尿素在小麦上一次性施肥技术。结果表明:两个试验点产量最高的为控释尿素A(一次性基施处理),达到7 500.4 kg/hm~2和8 145.1 kg/hm~2,与等氮量处理相比提高了180.1 kg/hm~2和224.9 kg/hm~2;在最佳施氮量的基础上减施20%的氮肥,与农民习惯施肥相比产量差异不显著,总体表现为不降低冬小麦产量,降低了施肥次数和劳动强度。     

The effect of foliar supplements of potassium nitrate and urea on the yield of winter wheat

Winter wheat crops were grown with ostensibly adequate supplies of all soil nutrients in 1990 and 1991 with the aim of testing if late foliar supplements of K and N, applied at key development stages, could improve grain yield and grain N content. Foliar sprays of KNO₃ solution, supplying up to 40 kg K ha^–1 in total, at flag leaf unfolded, inflorescence completed and the watery-ripe stage of grain filling, had no effect on yield, yield components or grain N. Urea, supplying 40 kg N ha^–1 at flag leaf unfolded, had no effects on grain yield and grain N in 1990, but in 1991 grain N was increased by 0.14% whilst yield was reduced by up to 0.6 t ha^–1. Urea scorched flag leaf tips in both years. In 1990, the spring was very dry and foliar supplements might have been expected to have had an effect, but on this highly fertile soil all crop K and N requirements were met from the soil.     

Ammonia volatilization losses from different fertilizers and effect of several urease inhibitors,CaCl2 and phosphogypsum on losses from urea

The extent of ammonia volatilization losses from urea, ammonium sulphate (AS), and diammonium phosphate (DAP) were determined in soil incubation studies. The effects of some urease inhibitors (thiourea, hyroquinone, 2–4 dinitro phenol and boric acid) and CaCl₂ and phosphogypsum additions on ammonia loss from urea were also studied. Total ammonia volatilization losses were 32.6%, 3.1% and 2.3% of the N applied to the soil as urea, AS and DAP, respectively. Among the chemicals examined in the study, 500 mg H₃BO₃ in 1 kg of the soil decreased the ammonia loss from urea by 21% in comparison with the control. When 50 mg/kg soil of thiourea, 2–4 dinitro phenol or hydroquinone were applied, ammonia volatilization losses were found to be 10%, 3% and 0% less than urea applied alone, respectively. When 2500 mg CaCl₂ was applied to 1 kg of soil with urea, ammonia loss was decreased by 5%. The lowest hydrolysis rate (65%) occurred with the boric acid treatment. The differences between the hydrolysis rates of the other treatments were not statistically significant. Phosphogypsum was found the most effective agent in reducing ammonia losses from urea. When phosphogypsum was mixed at 2.3 times as much as the urea, ammonia loss was about 85% less than that of urea applied alone. Obviously, further work is needed to find out the potential of both boric acid and phosphogypsum as reducing agents of ammonia losses from urea.     

Use of phenylphosphorodiamidate and N-(n-butyl)thiophosphorictriamide to reduce ammonia loss and increase grain yield following application of urea to flooded rice

Ammonia (NH₃) volatilization is an important mechanism for nitrogen (N) loss from flooded rice fields following the application of urea into the floodwater. One method of reducing losses is to use a urease inhibitor that retards the hydrolysis of urea by soil urease and allows the urea to diffuse deeper into the soil. The two chemicals that have shown most promise in laboratory and greenhouse studies are phenylphosphorodiamidate [PPD] and N-(n-butyl)thiophosphorictriamide [NBPT], but they seldom work effectively in the field. PPD decomposes rapidly when the pH departs from neutrality, and NBPT must be converted to the oxygen analogue [N-(n-butyl)phosphorictriamide, NBPTO] for it to be effective. Our field studies in Thailand showed that NH₃ loss is markedly reduced when PPD is added with the algicide terbutryn. The studies also showed that a mixture of PPD and NBPT was even more effective than either PPD or NBPT alone. It appears that initially PPD inhibited urease activity, and during this time at least part of the NBPT was converted to NBPTO; then as the activity of PPD declined, NBPTO inhibited the hydrolysis of urea. The combined urease inhibitor treatment reduced NH₃ loss from 15 to 3% of the applied N, and increased grain yield from 3.6 to 4.1 t ha^–1.     

Efficiency of modified urea fertilizers for tropical irrigated rice

An objective of the International Network on Soil Fertility and Fertilizer Evaluation for Rice (INSFFER) network is to field evaluate deep-point placement (urea supergranules) and slow-release (sulfur coated urea) N fertilizers in irrigated rice. These N sources were compared for performance with split application of prilled urea at 19 sites in Asia in wet season 1981.SCU or USG differed significantly in response curves from prilled urea at 12 of the 17 sites where N response was observed. Over these 17 sites, 22–25% less N as SCU or 29–31% less N as USG provided the same yield increment as the comparatively higher level of N as prilled urea.High profit N rates were derived for 5 sites. The optimal N levels for SCU or USG were less than for prilled urea. However, in one case for both test materials prilled urea was more profitable than SCU or USG. The marginal rates of return of using SCU or USG as opposed to OPU were calculated for the 11 sites where the response functions of the test materials differed significantly from prilled urea. In other than 2 sites for SCU the MRR exceeded 2.0 for 29 and 58 kg N ha^–1, indicating the general profitability of these materials when compared to prilled urea.     

Slow-release urea fertilizers — effect on floodwater chemistry,ammonia volatilization and rice growth in an alkali soil

In experiments with transplanted rice (Oryza sativa L.) at the Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal, India, two methods of application of granular urea, wholly as basal dose U(W) or in splits U(S) were compared with deep, point placement (8 cm) of urea supergranules and broadcast application of two slow-release sources, sulphur-coated urea (SCU) and lac-coated urea (LCU). Comparisons were made in wet season 1984 and 1985 on the basis of ammoniacal N concentration and pH of floodwater, ammonia volatilization, rice yield and N uptake.In 1984 the highest peak concentrations of ammoniacal N (AN) in the floodwater, > 12g m^–3, and ammonia volatilization losses 54% of applied N were produced in U(W). Application of N in splits U(S) reduced peak AN levels 5g m^–3 and losses to 45.1%. LCU was ineffective in reducing peak AN levels ( 7.5g m^–3) or losses (43.6%). However SCU and USG were effective in reducing peak AN levels to < 2g m^–3 and N losses to 16.9 and 3.4% respectively. Total ammonia volatilization losses as well as the initial rate of loss correlated very well with the peak levels (second day) of AN, NH₃ (aq.) as well as equilibrium vapour pressure of NH₃. Floodwater pH was between 9.5 and 10.0.Split application of granular urea was generally more efficient in terms of yield and N recovery (41.4%, average of two years) as compared to whole application (29.5%). LCU was ineffective in improving grain yields or N recovery (30.9%). SCU was ineffective in improving grain yields but improved N recovery to 57.9%., USG increased grain yields only in first year by 19% over U(S) and improved N uptake to 60.5%. A negative linear relationship was established between N uptake by rice at harvest and AN levels in floodwater two days after fertilization which can be used as an index to evaluate fertilizers.     

微量元素水溶肥料在小麦上的应用效果研究

探讨微量元素水溶肥料在小麦上的应用效果。喷施由合肥工业大学研制、安徽金地肥业有限公司生产的含大中量元素的微量元素水溶肥料,小麦穗数、穗粒数和千粒质量均高于常规和清水对照,小麦667 m2产量达320.6 kg,比常规和清水对照,分别增产18.8%、15.5%。     

Recent research on problems in the use of urea as a nitrogen fertilizer

Recent research on the NH₃ volatilization, NO ₂ ^- accumulation, and phytotoxicity problems encountered in the use of urea fertilizer is reviewed. This research has shown that the adverse effects of urea fertilizers on seed germination and seedling growth in soil are due to NH₃ produced through hydrolysis of urea by soil urease and can be eliminated by addition of a urease inhibitor to these fertilizers. It also has shown that the leaf burn commonly observed after foliar fertilization of soybean with urea results from accumulation of toxic amounts of urea in soybean leaves rather than formation of toxic amounts of NH3 through hydrolysis of urea by leaf urease. It further showed that this leaf burn is accordingly increased rather than decreased by addition of a urease inhibitor to the urea fertilizer applied. N-(n-butyl)thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT) is the most effective compound currently available for retarding hydrolysis of urea fertilizer in soil, decreasing NH3 volatilization and NO ₂ ^- accumulation in soils treated with urea, and eliminating the adverse effects of urea fertilizer on seed germination and seedling growth in soil. NBPT is a poor inhibitor of plant or microbial urease, but it decomposes quite rapidly in soil with formation of its oxon analog N-(n-butyl) phosphoric triamide, which is a potent inhibitor of urease activity. It is not as effective as phenylphosphorodiamidate (PPD) for retarding urea hydrolysis and ammonia volatilization in soils under waterlogged conditions, presumably because these conditions retard formation of its oxon analog. PPD is a potent inhibitor of urease activity but it decomposes quite rapidly in soils with formation of phenol, which is a relatively weak inhibitor of urease activity. Recent studies of the effects of pesticides on transformations of urea N in soil indicate that fungicides have greater potential than herbicides or insecticides for retarding hydrolysis of urea and nitrification of urea N in soil.     

Fertilizer nitrogen balance study on sandy loam with winter wheat

The uptake of labelled nitrate was studied under field conditions using a sandy loam soil and winter wheat as the crop. Thirty per cent of the added labelled nitrate was found in the grain, 13% in the straw plus chaff and only 2% in the harvested roots. The labelled nitrogen in the plant comprised about 6% of labelled fertilizer origin, and about 94% from the soil. By analysing the soil after harvest, it was shown that 16% of the fertilizer nitrogen was in the 0–6 cm layer, 19% in the 6–12 cm layer, 6% in the 12–25 cm layer and 5% in the 25–50 cm layer. This means a total residual fertilizer nitrogen of 46%. A study was made of the border effect by analysing the plants of the first and second row around the fertilized plot. The results show that the plants of the first row took up 1.4% of the added fertilizer and those of the second row only 0.4%. The total recovery of the added fertilizer in soil and plant was 93.1%, indicating that 6.9% was lost under conventional cultivation practice.     

Obtaining granular NPK fertilizers from single superphosphate and urea

A laboratory study was conducted to elaborate methods for obtaining granular NPK fertilizers from mixtures of single superphosphate (SSP) with urea and potassium salts. Samples of products of various grades containing 32–39% fertilizer nutrients and some micronutrients (B, Cu, Co, Mo, Mn) were obtained and their characteristics determined. Instead of cured SSP the usage of a fresh den product was recommended to reduce environmental pollution. The best results were obtained by drying den superphosphate and neutralizing it with limestone before mixing it with other components. Granulation of mixtures should be carried out by the thermic method at 80–95°C, on account of the liquid phase from melting urea. The hardness of the granules obtained by this method, when stored in a dry room, remained satisfactory for 3 months.This paper is dedicated to the memory of Edgar Arumeel (1911–1993)     

控释尿素对小麦增产效果与提高氮肥利用率的研究

采用控释尿素和普通尿素两种氮素肥料进行优质小麦郑麦366肥效试验研究。两地试验结果表明：100％控释尿素处理产量最高,为7980kg／hm^2和8290kg／hm^2,与同等氮素用量的普通尿素相比增产12．0％、14．0％;产量随氮肥用量的增加而增加;用量70％控释尿素处理与用量100％普通尿素处理之间相比,产量差异不大,没有达到显著性差异,说明施用控释尿素可以比普通尿素减少1／3的纯氮用量。     

8. New developments in nitrogen fertilizers for rice

The efficiency of nitrogen (N) fertilizer products and practices currently used on rice is low, and improving this efficiency would be very beneficial to rice-growing countries. The development of new N fertilizers is best achieved by following a logical sequence of testing and evaluation procedures in a variety of settings from the laboratory to the farmer's field. Novel N fertilizers currently at various stages of testing include urea supergranules for deep placement, urea coated with various materials to control the N release rate, mixtures of a urease inhibitor with urea to reduce losses, and organic N sources other than urea.     

A study on the removal of urea from aqueous solution with immobilized urease and electrodialysis

A five-compartment electrodialyzer with immobilized urease was developed for the removal of urea from aqueous solution. The immobilized urease, supported on polyurethane foam, was placed in the central (dilute) compartment, where urea was hydrolyzed and the products NH₄⁺ and CO₃^2-/HCO₃^? were removed simultaneously by electrodialysis. The system was studied both under constant current and under constant voltage. The effects of urea concentration and applied current or voltage on the removal of urea and ammonium ions from the dilute solution were investigated. The variations of the pH of dilute solution, the current or voltage of system, and current efficiency were also examined during reaction-electrodialysis. The removal of urea by enzymic reaction was not affected significantly by the applied electric field. The current effieiencies for removing ammonium ions from dilute solution were mostly within 40-80%, and the removal percentage of ammonium ions was dependent on current density and current efficiency.     

Immobilization of urease and estimation of effective diffusion coefficients of urea in HEMA and VP copolymer matrices

Enzyme urease was immobilized in copolymer matrices of 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) and N-vinyl pyrrolidone (VP). The activities of immobilized urease stored in phosphate buffer solution of pH 7.0 at 4°C were examined periodically for up to 90 days. For the matrices of higher VP/HEMA mole ratio in the structure, a higher volume increase and enhanced apparent activity were observed, while HEMA polymer alone proved to have the most stable matrix for prolonged activity. No appreciable amount of enzyme leakage was experienced for any of the matrices prepared. The effective diffusion coefficients of urea through these polymer matrices were calculated with a ‘diffusion and reaction’ model and the highest effective diffusion coefficient was found with pure HEMA matrix, possibly due to its laminated structure.     

Evaluation of ammonium thiosulfate as a soil urease inhibitor

Interest in use of ammonium thiosulfate (ATS) in conjunction with urea as a fertilizer has been stimulated by recent reports that this compound retards hydrolysis of urea by soil urease and thereby reduces volatilization of urea N as ammonia from soils fertilized with urea. We evaluated ATS as a soil urease inhibitor by studying its effects on urea hydrolysis, seed germination, and early seedling growth in soil. We found that ATS significantly retarded urea hydrolysis only when applied at rates as high as 2,500 or 5,000µg g^–1 soil, whereasN-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT) (a patented inhibitor of urea hydrolysis in soil) caused substantial retardation of urea hydrolysis when applied at rates as low as 1µg g^–1 soil. We also found that ATS had an adverse effect on germination of corn or wheat seeds in soil when applied at the rate of 2,500 or 5,000µg g^–1 soil and caused a dramatic reduction of early seedling growth of corn or wheat when applied at the rate of 1,000, 2,500, or 5,000µg g^–1 soil. These findings indicate that ATS has little, if any, potential value for retarding hydrolysis of urea fertilizer in soil.