<Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">d</Emphasis>-Maltose Synthesized Silver Nanoparticles for Biofilm Eradication

Biofilms are complex bacterial communities have a mechanism for antibiotic resistance leading to human health problems. It remains challenging to treat and eradicate biofilms. In this work, the use of d-maltose synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) was investigated in an effort to eradicate a biofilm. AgNPs were synthesized using a modified Tollen’s method. d-maltose was used in synthesizing AgNPs with different concentrations of d-maltose (0.01, 0.05 and 0.1 M), referred to as NP1, NP2 and NP3, respectively. TEM images revealed that the particles were polygon shaped. The particle sizes were found to be 86.81?±?13.39, 54.94?±?11.63 and 31.43?±?31.76 nm depending on their sugar concentrations. UV–Vis, ATR–FTIR, and XRD patterns were employed to characterize the AgNPs. Then, these AgNPs were investigated for their anti-bacterial effects against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Evaluation of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimal bactericidal concentration revealed that S. aureus was inhibited by all AgNPs and killed by NP1 and NP3, and E. coli was inhibited and killed at all AgNPs doses. Furthermore, anti-biofilm activity against these two bacteria was observed using SEM and confocal laser scanning microscopy. This sugar coated AgNPs is a promising material for use in eradication of biofilms.     

(1<Emphasis Type="Italic">S</Emphasis>,3<Emphasis Type="Italic">R</Emphasis>)-<Emphasis Type="Italic">cis</Emphasis>-Chrysanthemyl Tiglate: Sex Pheromone of the Striped Mealybug, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ferrisia virgata</Emphasis>

Derivatives of 2,2-dimethyl-3-(2-methylprop-1-enyl)cyclopropanecarboxylic acid (chrysanthemic acid) are classic natural pyrethroids discovered in pyrethrum plants and show insecticidal activity. Chrysanthemic acid, with two asymmetric carbons, has four possible stereoisomers, and most natural pyrethroids have the (1R,3R)-trans configuration. Interestingly, chrysanthemic acid–related structures are also found in insect sex pheromones; carboxylic esters of (1R,3R)-trans-(2,2-dimethyl-3-(2-methylprop-1-enyl)cyclopropyl)methanol (chrysanthemyl alcohol) have been reported from two mealybug species. In the present study, another ester of chrysanthemyl alcohol was discovered from the striped mealybug, Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell), as its pheromone. By means of gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry, and high-performance liquid chromatography analyses using a chiral stationary phase column and authentic standards, the pheromone was identified as (1S,3R)-(?)-cis-chrysanthemyl tiglate. The (1S,3R)-enantiomer strongly attracted adult males in a greenhouse trapping bioassay, whereas the other enantiomers showed only weak activity. The cis configuration of the chrysanthemic acid–related structure appears to be relatively scarce in nature, and this is the first example reported from arthropods.     

Combined extracts of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Garcinia mangostana</Emphasis> fruit rind and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cinnamomum tamala</Emphasis> leaf supplementation enhances muscle strength and endurance in resistance trained males

Background

A proprietary composition GMCT contains extracts of two popular Asian herbs viz., Garcinia mangostana (GM) fruit rind and Cinnamomum tamala (CT) leaf. We systematically evaluated physical performance and muscle strength enhancing ability of GMCT in a preclinical mouse model followed by a 42-days double-blind placebo controlled human trial in resistance trained adult males.

Methods

Four groups of Swiss albino mice (20–30 g body weight) (n?=?6) were fed a standard laboratory diet and given Carboxymethylcellulose sodium (CMC), 150 mg/kg GMCT (GMCT-150), 300 mg/kg GMCT (GMCT-300) or 50 mg/kg Oxymetholone (OXY) via oral gavage for 21 days. On day 22, the animals’ physical performance and muscle strength were assessed in a forced swimming test (FST) and forelimb grip strength experiment, respectively.In the human trial, thirty-eight resistance-trained young adults (mean age 26.32?±?4.39 years, body weight 67.79?±?12.84 kg, BMI 22.92?±?3.54 kg/m²) completed the trial. The participants received either GMCT (n?=?19; 800 mg daily) or matched placebo (n?=?19) for 42 days. As primary variables, 1-RM bench press, 1-RM leg press, and leg extension repetitions were measured at baseline and on days 14, 28 and 42 of the intervention. Anthropometric parameters and serum markers such as free testosterone, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), insulin and lactate were also measured before and after the intervention.

Results

GMCT-300 mice showed significant improvement in swimming time (GMCT: 395.3?±?81.70 s vs. CMC: 271.6?±?56.86 s; p?=?0.0166), distance (GMCT: 341.22?±?65.88 m vs. CMC: 260.84?±?49.15 m; p?=?0.0461) and grip strength (GMCT: 43.92?±?6.97 N vs. CMC: 35.0?±?6.92 N; p?=?0.0490), compared with the CMC group.At the end of the 42-day human trial, the per protocol analyses reveal that mean changes from baseline 1-RM bench press (GMCT: 23.47?±?10.07 kg vs. PL: 3.42?±?2.06 kg; p?<?0.0001), leg press (GMCT: 29.32?±?16.17 kg vs. PL: 5.21?±?1.72 kg; p?<?0.0001), number of leg extension repetitions (GMCT: 6.58?±?2.57 vs. PL: 2.05?±?1.22; p?<?0.0001) in GMCT group were significantly improved, compared with placebo. Intergroup difference analyses show that the changes from baseline left arm (GMCT: 1.09?±?0.36 cm vs. PL: 0.68?±?0.42 cm; p?=?0.0023), right arm (GMCT: 1.50?±?0.44 cm vs. PL: 1.11?±?0.43 cm; p?=?0.0088) circumference and lean mass (GMCT: 2.29?±?2.09 kg vs. PL: 0.52?±?2.58 kg; p?=?0.0404) in GMCT group were also significantly improved, compared with placebo. In comparison to placebo, GMCT supplementation did not improve free testosterone, IGF-1, insulin or lactate levels. Parameters of clinical biochemistry, hematology, urine and vital signs of the participants were within the normal range.

Conclusion

GMCT supplementation is effective in increasing muscle strength, muscle size and, total lean mass, as well as endurance performance.Trial Registration.Clinical Trial Registry of India (CTRI/2015/01/005374), Registered on Jan 07, 2015; CTRI Website URL - http://ctri.nic.in

     

2-Methoxylated FA Display Unusual Antibacterial Activity Towards Clinical Isolates of Methicillin-Resistant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Staphylococcus aureus</Emphasis> (CIMRSA) and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Escherichia coli</Emphasis>

The naturally occurring (6Z)-(±)-2-methoxy-6-hexadecenoic acid (1) and (6Z)-(±)-2-methoxy-6-octadecenoic acid (2) were synthesized in 7–8 steps with 38 and 13% overall yields, respectively, by using an acetylide coupling approach, which made it possible to obtain a 100% cis-stereochemistry for the double bonds. In a similar fashion, the acetylenic analogs (±)-2-methoxy-6-hexadecynoic acid (3) and (±)-2-methoxy-6-octadecynoic acid (4) were also synthesized in 6–7 steps with 48 and 16% overall yields, respectively. The antibacterial activity of acids 1–4 was determined against clinical isolates of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (ClMRSA) and Escherichia coli. Among the series of compounds, acid 4 was the most active bactericide towards CIMRSA displaying IC_50s (half maximal inhibitory concentrations) between 17 and 37 μg/mL, in sharp contrast to the 6-octadecynoic acid, which was not bactericidal at all. On the other hand, acids 1 and 3 were the only acids that displayed antibacterial activity towards E. coli, but 1 stood out as the best candidate with an IC₅₀ of 21 μg/mL. The critical micelle concentrations (CMCs) of acids 1–4 were also determined. The C18 acids 2 and 4 displayed a five-fold lower CMC (15–20 μg/mL) than the C16 analogs 1 and 3 (70–100 μg/mL), indicating that 4 exerts its antibacterial activity in a micellar state. None of the studied acids were inhibitory towards S. aureus DNA gyrase discounting this type of enzyme inhibition as a possible antibacterial mechanism. It was concluded that the combination of α-methoxylation and C-6 unsaturation increases the bactericidal activity of the C16 and C18 FA towards the studied bacterial strains. Acids 1 and 4 stand out as viable candidates to be used against E. coli and CIMRSA, respectively.     

Identification of the Unsaturated Heptadecyl Fatty Acids in the Seed Oils of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Thespesia populnea</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gossypium hirsutum</Emphasis>

The fatty acid composition of the seed oils of Thespesia populnea and cotton variety SG-747 (Gossypium hirsutum) were studied to identity their 17-carbon fatty acids. With a combination of chemical derivatization, gas chromatography, and mass spectrometry, 8-heptadecenoic acid, 9-heptadecenoic acid, and 8,11-heptadecadienoic acids were identified in both oils. Additionally, traces of 10-heptadecenoic acid were identified in the T. populnea oil. Although these odd-carbon number fatty acids are present in only minor amounts in cottonseed oil, they make up about ~2 % of the fatty acids in T. populnea seed oil. The identification of these acids indicates that fatty acid α-oxidation is not restricted to cyclopropene fatty acids in these plants, but also occurs with unsaturated fatty acids. Combined with malvalic acid (generally accepted as being formed by α-oxidation of sterculic acid), ~7 % of the fatty acids in T. populnea seed have under gone α-oxidization. The results should help clarify the composition of T. populnea seed oil, which has been reported inconsistently in the literature.     

Atmospheric nitrogen loss factor (<Emphasis Type="Italic">f</Emphasis>) used in determining nitrogen-based municipal wastewater effluent irrigation rates: design and nitrogen-balance estimated <Emphasis Type="Italic">f</Emphasis> values

Design irrigation rates for treated municipal wastewater effluent (MWE) are usually determined from nitrogen (N) mass-balances, in which the fraction (f) of the total N in the MWE that is lost to the atmosphere is commonly obtained from US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) tabulated (design) values: 0.15–0.25 for secondary-treated effluents and 0.1 for tertiary-treated effluents. In 2011 and 2012, f values from an N balance in a tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) hay field in Central Pennsylvania were quantified and compared to the USEPA design f values. The grass field was spray-irrigated with MWE (C:N ratio = 0.04–0.2; near neutral pH, and 70–87% of the MWE-TN was NO₃–N) at a rate of ≤5-cm wk^?1. Monthly N balances were calculated from April to September in the surface horizon of a Hagerstown soil. The f values of 0.05, 0.1, and 0.2 seemed appropriate for the months of May and June, August and September, and July, respectively. Positive fnb estimates and the logarithm of measured monthly N removal in the aboveground biomass (kg ha^?1) were negatively correlated (R² = 0.99 for monthly mean air temperatures ≥20 °C and R² = 0.2 for monthly mean air temperatures <20 °C). The study’s results suggest that existing design f values are likely less applicable especially due to the biological N-removal processes currently present in many wastewater treatment plants needing to meet effluent N limits. Thus, more studies to determine empirical f values in effluent irrigation are needed to refine design f values.     

Synthesis,characterization and thermal dehydration and degradation kinetics of chitosan Schiff bases of <Emphasis Type="Italic">o</Emphasis>-, <Emphasis Type="Italic">m</Emphasis>- and <Emphasis Type="Italic">p</Emphasis>-nitrobenzaldehyde

The chitosan Schiff bases were synthesised through the condensation reaction of chitosan with o-, m- and p-nitrobenzaldehyde (abbreviated as CSB-o, CSB-m and CSB-p) in the ratio 1:1 and were characterised by means of FTIR, UV, XRD and SEM. The thermal dehydration and degradation kinetics of all these Schiff bases were studied using different isoconversional and maximum rate (peak) methods, viz. Kissinger–Akahira–Sunose (KAS), Tang, Starink, Flynn–Wall–Ozawa (FWO) and Bosewell from DSC data and the thermal stability from TG. The activation energy values of thermal dehydration and degradation reactions obtained from isoconversional methods of FWO and Bosewell are slightly higher than that obtained from other methods. All the isoconversional and maximum rate (peak) methods yielded consistent values of E _α for both the dehydration and degradation reactions and is in the order CSB-o < CSB-m < CSB-p. The Schiff bases observed (from TG) the same order of thermal stability.     

Phytofabrication,Characterization and Antibacterial Activity of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cassia auriculata</Emphasis> Leaf Extract Derived CuO Nanoparticles

A simple, eco-friendly phytosynthesis of copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO NPs) using Cassia auriculata leaf extract was reported. The prepared CuO NPs was characterized by UV–vis spectroscopy which exhibited the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) band at 380–385 nm. TEM and EDX analysis confirmed that CuO NPs were spherical and in size range of 30–35 nm with identified elements Cu and O. X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectrum showed the crystalline nature of the prepared CuO NPs. FTIR spectrum confirmed the presence of Cu–O functional groups. CuO NPs showed significant antibacterial efficacy against all the tested bacterial strains, i.e., Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. CuO NPs showed strong antibacterial action against B. subtilis and E. coli than P. aeruginosa and S. aureus. The results of this study revealed that C. auriculata leaf extract was found to be an effective bio-reducing agent for CuO NPs synthesis and also the antibacterial efficacy of phytofabricated CuO may be useful for its applications in medical and textile industries.     

Novel amphiphilic temperature responsive graft copolymers PCL-<Emphasis Type="Italic">g</Emphasis>-P(MEO<Subscript>2</Subscript>MA-<Emphasis Type="Italic">co</Emphasis>-OEGMA) via a combination of ROP and ATRP: synthesis,characterization, and sol-gel transition

A series of well-defined novel amphiphilic temperature-responsive graft copolymers containing PCL analogues P(αClεCL-co-εCL) as the hydrophobic backbone, and the hydrophilic side-chain PEG analogues P(MEO₂MA-co-OEGMA), designated as P(αClεCL-co-εCL)-g-P(MEO₂MA-co-OEGMA) have been prepared via a combination of ring-opening polymerization (ROP) and atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). The composition and structure of these copolymers were characterized by ¹H NMR and GPC analyses. The self-assembly behaviors of these amphiphilic graft copolymers were investigated by UV transmittance, a fluorescence probe method, dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analyses. The results showed that the graft copolymers exhibited the good solubility in water, and was given the low critical temperature (LCST) at 35(±1) °C, which closed to human physiological temperature. The critical micelle concentrations (CMC) of P(αClεCL-co-εCL)-g-P(MEO₂MA-co-OEGMA) in aqueous solution were investigated to be 2.0 × 10^?3, 9.1 × 10^?4 and 1.5 × 10^?3 mg·mL^?1, respectively. The copolymer could self-assemble into sphere-like aggregates in aqueous solution with diverse sizes when changing the environmental temperature. The vial inversion test demonstrated that the graft copolymers could trigger the sol-gel transition which also depended on the temperature.     

Synthesis and swelling behavior of metal-chelating superabsorbent hydrogels based on sodium alginate-<Emphasis Type="Italic">g</Emphasis>-poly(AMPS-<Emphasis Type="Italic">co</Emphasis>-AA-<Emphasis Type="Italic">co</Emphasis>-AM) obtained under microwave irradiation

A metal-chelating superabsorbent hydrogel based on poly(2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid-co-acrylic acid-co-acrylamide) grafted onto sodium alginate backbone, NaAlg-g-poly(AMPS-co-AA-co-AM) is prepared under microwave irradiation. The Taguchi method is used for the optimization of synthetic parameters of the hydrogel based on water absorbency. The Taguchi L₉ (3⁴) orthogonal array is chosen for experimental design. Mass concentrations of crosslinker MBA \(C_{\text{MBA}}\) initiator KPS \(C_{\text{KPS}}\), sodium alginate \(C_{\text{NaAlg}}\) and mass ratio of monomers \(C_{\text{AM/AA/AMPS}}\) are chosen as four factors. The analysis of variance of the test results indicates the following optimal conditions: 0.8 g L^?1 of MBA, 0.9 g L^?1 of KPS, 8 g L^?1 of NaAlg and \(R_{\text{AM/AA/AMPS}}\) equals to 1:1.1:1.1. The maximum water absorbency of the optimized final hydrogel is found to be 822 g g^?1. The relative thermal stability of the optimized hydrogel in comparison with sodium alginate is demonstrated via thermogravimetric analysis. The prepared hydrogel is characterized by FTIR spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The influence of the environmental parameters on water absorbency such as the pH and the ionic force is also investigated. The optimized hydrogel is used as adsorbent for hazardous heavy metal ions Pb(II), Cd(II), Ni(II) and Cu(II) and their competitive adsorption is also discussed. Isotherm of adsorption and effect of pH, adsorption dosage and recyclability are investigated. The results show that the maximum adsorption capacities of lead and cadmium ions on the hydrogel are 628.93 and 456.62 mg g^?1, respectively. The adsorption is well described by Langmuir isotherm model. The hydrogel is also utilized for the loading of potassium nitrate as an active agrochemical agent and the release of this active agent has also been investigated.     

Ammonia Released by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Streptomyces aburaviensis</Emphasis> Induces Droplet Formation in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Streptomyces violaceoruber</Emphasis>

Streptomyces violaceoruber grown in co-culture with Streptomyces aburaviensis produces an about 17-fold higher volume of droplets on its aerial mycelium than in single-culture. Physical separation of the Streptomyces strains by either a plastic barrier or by a dialysis membrane, which allowed communication only by the exchange of volatile compounds or diffusible compounds in the medium, respectively, still resulted in enhanced droplet formation. The application of molecular sieves to bioassays resulted in the attenuation of the droplet-inducing effect of S. aburaviensis indicating the absorption of the compound. ¹H-NMR analysis of molecular-sieve extracts and the selective indophenol-blue reaction revealed that the volatile droplet-inducing compound is ammonia. The external supply of ammonia in biologically relevant concentrations of ≥8 mM enhanced droplet formation in S. violaceoruber in a similar way to S. aburaviensis. Ammonia appears to trigger droplet production in many Streptomyces strains because four out of six Streptomyces strains exposed to ammonia exhibited induced droplet production.     

Ultralow ppm <Emphasis Type="Italic">se</Emphasis>ATRP synthesis of PEO-<Emphasis Type="Italic">b</Emphasis>-PBA copolymers

Poly(ethylene oxide)-block-poly(butyl acrylate) copolymers were prepared via simplified electrochemically mediated atom transfer radical polymerization (seATRP) utilizing only 1 ppm of Cu^II complex, which is the limit of a successful well-controlled polymerization. The presented seATRP system works under potentiostatic and galvanostatic conditions. The polymerization results showed similar molecular weight evolution while maintaining a narrow molecular weight distribution throughout the reactions. ¹H NMR results confirm chemical structure of synthesized diblock copolymers. This ultralow ppm technique is promising candidate for polymerization from nanoparticles, flat surfaces, proteins, and DNA.     

Sexual Deception in the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucera</Emphasis>-Pollinated <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ophrys leochroma</Emphasis>: A Chemical Intermediate between Wasp- and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Andrena-</Emphasis>Pollinated Species

Ophrys flowers mimic sex pheromones of attractive females of their pollinators and attract males, which attempt to copulate with the flower and thereby pollinate it. Virgin females and orchid flowers are known to use the same chemical compounds in order to attract males. The composition of the sex pheromone and its floral analogue, however, vary between pollinator genera. Wasp-pollinated Ophrys species attract their pollinators by using polar hydroxy acids, whereas Andrena-pollinated species use a mixture of non-polar hydrocarbons. The phylogeny of Ophrys shows that its evolution was marked by episodes of rapid diversification coinciding with shifts to different pollinator groups: from wasps to Eucera and consequently to Andrena and other bees. To gain further insights, we studied pollinator attraction in O. leochroma in the context of intra- and inter-generic pollinator shifts, radiation, and diversification in the genus Ophrys. Our model species, O. leochroma, is pollinated by Eucera kullenbergi males and lies in the phylogeny between the wasp and Andrena-pollinated species; therefore, it is a remarkable point to understand pollinator shifts. We collected surface extracts of attractive E. kullenbergi females and labellum extracts of O. leochroma and analyzed them by using gas chromatography with electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD) and gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). We also performed field bioassays. Our results show that O. leochroma mimics the sex pheromone of its pollinator’s female by using aldehydes, alcohols, fatty acids, and non-polar compounds (hydrocarbons). Therefore, in terms of the chemistry of pollinator attraction, Eucera-pollinated Ophrys species might represent an intermediate stage between wasp- and Andrena-pollinated orchid species.     

Sexual Isolation and Cuticular Hydrocarbon Differences between <Emphasis Type="Italic">Drosophila santomea</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Drosophila yakuba</Emphasis>

Drosophila santomea and Drosophila yakuba are two sister species inhabiting Saõ Tomé island. Previous studies showed that both species display strong reproductive isolation, although they can produce a few viable hybrids. Our study tried to understand the mechanism of this ethological isolation between two allopatric strains. A strong sexual isolation was confirmed, with a marked asymmetry. Comparisons of latency times to either courtship or copulation suggest that males do not discriminate females, whereas D. yakuba females, but not D. santomea females, accept their homospecifics more quickly. Cuticular hydrocarbon compositions of both species and sexes were also established with gas chromatography (GC) and GC/mass spectrometry analysis. All have (Z)-7-tricosene as their major compound. There are several quantitative differences between species for few minor compounds. The largest difference concerns n-heneicosane, which is more abundant in D. santomea than in D. yakuba flies (up to seven times more between males). A similar quantitative difference was also found in a pair of sympatric strains. Furthermore, D. yakuba males artificially perfumed with n-heneicosane were discriminated negatively by D. yakuba females, suggesting a role for this compound in the sexual isolation between these two species.     

Enhanced Thermoelectric Performance of <Emphasis Type="Italic">c</Emphasis>-Axis-Oriented Epitaxial Ba-Doped BiCuSeO Thin Films

We reported the epitaxial growth of c-axis-oriented Bi_1?xBa_xCuSeO (0?≤ x ≤?10%) thin films and investigated the effect of Ba doping on the structure, valence state of elements, and thermoelectric properties of the films. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis reveal that Bi³⁺ is partially reduced to the lower valence state after Ba doping, while Cu and Se ions still exist as +?1 and ??2 valence state, respectively. As the Ba doping content increases, both resistivity and Seebeck coefficient decrease because of the increased hole carrier concentration. A large power factor, as high as 1.24 mWm^?1 K^?2 at 673 K, has been achieved in the 7.5% Ba-doped BiCuSeO thin film, which is 1.5 times higher than those reported for the corresponding bulk samples. Considering that the nanoscale-thick Ba-doped films should have a very low thermal conductivity, high ZT can be expected in the films.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">cis</Emphasis>-, <Emphasis Type="Italic">trans</Emphasis>- and Saturated Fatty Acids in Selected Hydrogenated and Refined Vegetable Oils in the Indian Market

The fatty acid composition of 27 samples of commercial hydrogenated vegetable oils and 23 samples of refined oils such as sunflower oil, rice bran oil, soybean oil and RBD palmolein marketed in India were analyzed. Total cis, trans unsaturated fatty acids (TFA) and saturated fatty acids (SFA) were determined. Out of the 27 hydrogenated fats, 11 % had TFA about 1 % where as 11 % had more than 5 % TFA with an average value of about 13.1 %. The 18:1 trans isomers, elaidic acid was the major trans contributor found to have an average value of about 10.8 % among the fats. The unsaturated fatty acids like cis-oleic acid, linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid were in the range of 21.8–40.2, 1.9–12.2, 0.0–0.7 % respectively. Out of the samples, eight fats had fatty acid profiles of low TFA (less than 10 %) and high polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) such as linoleic and α-linolenic acid. They had a maximum TFA content of 7.3 % and PUFA of 11.7 %. Among the samples of refined oils, rice bran oil (5.8 %) and sunflower oil (4.4 %) had the maximum TFA content. RBD palmolein and rice bran oils had maximum saturated fatty acids content of 45.1 and 24.4 % respectively. RBD palmolein had a high monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) content of about 43.4 %, sunflower oil had a high linoleic acid content of about 56.1 % and soybean oil had a high α-linolenic acid content of about 5.3 %.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">trans</Emphasis>-10,<Emphasis Type="Italic">cis</Emphasis>-12 Conjugated Linoleic Acid Enhances Endurance Capacity by Increasing Fatty Acid Oxidation and Reducing Glycogen Utilization in Mice

The supplementation of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) has been shown to improve endurance by enhancing fat oxidation during exercise in rodents and humans. This study was designed to investigate the isomer-specific effects of CLA on endurance capacity and energy metabolism in mice during exercise. Male 129Sv/J mice were divided into three dietary groups and fed treatment diet for 6 weeks; control, 0.5 % cis-9,trans-11 (c9,t11) CLA, or 0.5 % trans-10,cis-12 (t10,c12) CLA. Dietary t10,c12 CLA induced a significant increase in maximum running time and distance until exhaustion with a dramatic reduction of total adipose depots compared to a control group, but there were no significant changes in endurance with the c9,t11 CLA treatment. Serum triacylglycerol and non-esterified fatty acid concentrations were significantly lower in the t10,c12 fed mice after exercise compared to control and the c9,t11 CLA fed-animals. Glycogen contents in livers of the t10,c12 fed-mice were higher than those in control mice, concomitant with reduction of serum l-lactate level. There were no differences in non-exercise physical activity among all treatment groups. In addition, the mRNA expression levels of carnitine palmitoyl transferase 1β, uncoupling protein 2 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ (PPARδ) in skeletal muscle during exercise were significantly up-regulated by the t10,c12 CLA but not the c9,t11 CLA. These results suggest that the t10,c12 CLA is responsible for improving endurance exercise capacity by promoting fat oxidation with a reduction of the consumption of stored liver glycogen, potentially mediated via PPARδ dependent mechanisms.     

The Role of the Glucosinolate-Myrosinase System in Mediating Greater Resistance of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Barbarea verna</Emphasis> than <Emphasis Type="Italic">B. vulgaris</Emphasis> to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mamestra brassicae</Emphasis> Larvae

We investigated the influences of two structurally similar glucosinolates, phenethylglucosinolate (gluconasturtiin, NAS) and its (S)-2-hydroxyl derivative glucobarbarin (BAR), as well as their hydrolysis products on larvae of the generalist Mamestra brassicae (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Previous results suggested a higher defensive activity of BAR than NAS based on resistance toward M. brassicae larvae of natural plant genotypes of Barbarea vulgaris R. Br. (Brassicaceae) dominated by BAR. In the present study, the hypothesis of a higher defensive activity of BAR than NAS was tested by comparing two Barbarea species similarly dominated either by BAR or by NAS and by testing effects of isolated BAR and NAS on larval survival and feeding preferences. Larvae reared on leaf disks of B. verna (Mill.) Asch. had a lower survival than those reared on B. vulgaris P- and G-chemotypes. Leaves of B. verna were dominated by NAS, whereas B. vulgaris chemotypes were dominated by BAR or its epimer. In addition, B. verna leaves showed a threefold higher activity of the glucosinolate-activating myrosinase enzymes. The main product of NAS from breakdown by endogenous enzymes including myrosinases (“autolysis”) in B. verna leaves was phenethyl isothiocyanate, while the main products of BAR in autolyzed B. vulgaris leaves were a cyclized isothiocyanate product, namely an oxazolidine-2-thione, and a downstream metabolite, an oxazolidin-2-one. The glucosinolates BAR and NAS were isolated and offered to larvae on disks of cabbage. Both glucosinolates exerted similar negative effects on larval survival but effects of NAS tended to be more detrimental. Low concentrations of BAR, but not of NAS, stimulated larval feeding, whereas high BAR concentrations acted deterrent. NAS only tended to be deterrent at the highest concentration, but the difference was not significant. Recoveries of NAS and BAR on cabbage leaf disks were similar, and when hydrolyzed by mechanical leaf damage, the same isothiocyanate-type products as in Barbarea plants were formed with further conversion of BAR to cyclic products, (R)-5-phenyloxazolidine-2-thione [(R)-barbarin] and (R)-5-phenyloxazolidin-2-one [(R)-resedine]. We conclude that a previously proposed generally higher defensive activity of BAR than NAS to M. brassicae larvae could not be confirmed. Indeed, the higher resistance of NAS-containing B. verna plants may be due to a combined effect of rather high concentrations of NAS and a relatively high myrosinase activity or other plant traits not investigated yet.     

Oxidizable Phenolic Concentrations Do Not Affect Development and Survival of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Paropsis Atomaria</Emphasis> Larvae Eating <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucalyptus</Emphasis> Foliage

Insect folivores can cause extensive damage to plants. However, different plant species, and even individuals within species, can differ in their susceptibility to insect attack. Polyphenols that readily oxidize have recently gained attention as potential defenses against insect folivores. We tested the hypothesis that variation in oxidizable phenolic concentrations in Eucalyptus foliage influences feeding and survival of Paropsis atomaria (Eucalyptus leaf beetle) larvae. First we demonstrated that oxidizable phenolic concentrations vary both within and between Eucalyptus species, ranging from 0 to 61 mg.g^?1 DM (0 to 81% of total phenolics), in 175 samples representing 13 Eucalyptus species. Foliage from six individuals from each of ten species of Eucalyptus were then offered to batches of newly hatched P. atomaria larvae, and feeding, instar progression and mortality of the first and second instar larvae were recorded. Although feeding and survival parameters differed dramatically between individual plants, they were not influenced by the oxidizable phenolic concentration of leaves, suggesting that P. atomaria larvae may have effective mechanisms to deal with oxidizable phenolics. Larvae feeding on plants with higher nitrogen (N) concentrations had higher survival rates and reached third instar earlier, but N concentrations did not explain most of the variation in feeding and survival. The cause of variation in eucalypt herbivory by P. atomaria larvae is therefore still unknown, although oxidizable phenolics could potentially defend eucalypt foliage against other insect herbivores.