Lemon albedo as a new source of dietary fiber: Application to bologna sausages

The aim of this work was to study the effect of the addition of lemon albedo in bologna sausages. Two types of albedo (raw and cooked) and five concentrations (0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10%) were added to sausages. Chemical, physicochemical and sensory analyses were made. The addition of albedo to bologna sausages represents an improvement in their nutritional properties and may have beneficial effects, possibly due to the presence of active biocompounds which induce a decrease in residual nitrite levels. The formulations which gave products with sensory properties similar to conventional sausages were sausages with 2.5% and 5% raw albedo and 2.5%, 5% and 7.5% cooked albedo.     

Quality characteristics of a non‐fermented dry‐cured sausage formulated with lemon albedo

Dry‐cured sausages were treated with two types of dehydrated lemon albedo (raw and cooked) at five concentrations (0–100 g kg^?1 in 25 g kg^?1 increments). Several physical and chemical analyses were made during the drying stage, and compositional, textural and sensory analyses were conducted on the finished products. The addition of albedo improved the nutritional properties as a result of fibre addition and may have beneficial effects due to the presence of active biocompounds as evidenced by a decrease in residual nitrite levels and delayed oxidation (based on TBARS values). The sensory properties of samples that resembled the control sausages were those that contained up to 50 g kg^?1 dehydrated raw albedo and 75 g kg^?1 dehydrated cooked albedo. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Characteristics of meat emulsion systems as influenced by different levels of lemon albedo

The effect of the addition of lemon albedo on the functional properties of emulsions was studied by using a model system. Oil/water (O/W) model emulsion systems were prepared by the addition of two types of lemon albedo (raw and dehydrated) at five concentrations (0.0%, 2.5%, 5.0%, 7.5% and 10%) to mechanically deboned chicken meat. The emulsion capacity, stability, viscosity and flow properties of the prepared model emulsions were analyzed. In addition, the colour parameters of cooked emulsion gel were determined. The addition of lemon albedo increased the emulsion capacity (EC) and the highest EC value was reached with 5% of albedo added. However, further increase in the albedo concentration caused an inverse trend in the EC values. A similar trend was observed in the emulsion stability (ES) values. Dehydrated albedo (DA) addition caused higher EC and ES values than did raw albedo (RA). DA increased the L^∗, a^∗ and b^∗ values of the cooked emulsion gels. Emulsion viscosity (EV) values were positively correlated with an increase in albedo concentration and the highest EV value was obtained from the emulsions with 10% albedo. Albedo addition did not change the flow properties of the emulsions and, in addition, increased the pseudoplasticity. As a consequence, the use of lemon albedo might be a potential dietary fiber source to enhance the functional and technological properties for frankfurter-type meat products.     

Application of lysine, taurine, disodium inosinate and disodium guanylate in fermented cooked sausages with 50% replacement of NaCl by KCl

The effects of 50% replacement of NaCl by KCl and addition of the amino acids lysine and taurine and the 5'-ribonucleotide disodium inosinate and disodium guanylate on some sensory and physicochemical parameters of fermented cooked sausages were evaluated. The partial replacement of NaCl by KCl did not alter the manufacturing process; however, defects in the sensory quality were detected. Lysine at a concentration of 0.313% and a mixture of taurine (750 mg/kg) with disodium inosinate (300 mg/kg) and disodium guanylate (300 mg/kg) reduced the sensory defects caused by KCl, allowing the fermented cooked sausages to be elaborated with reduced sodium content and high sensory quality.     

Effect of inulin on the textural and sensory properties of mortadella, a Spanish cooked meat product

Inulin is a fructooligosaccharide with demonstrable beneficial effects on health. Its effect on the textural and sensory properties of mortadella, a Spanish cooked meat product, was studied. Conventional (23% fat) and reduced‐fat sausages (10% fat) were prepared. Fat reduction yields an energy value reduction close to 33%. In both cases, inulin was incorporated, in powder and as gel form, in sufficient amounts to constitute the 2.5%, 5% and 7.5% of the final product. To evaluate the effect of inulin, instrumental measures of texture and sensory analysis (hedonic test) were performed. Textural analysis indicated that powdered inulin increases hardness and this fact was more evident in reduced‐fat sausages which showed that this changes even at concentrations of 2.5%. However, when inulin was incorporated as a gel, textural parameter changed only when the high levels were assayed (7.5%) showing softer sausages independent of the fat content. Sensory analysis was highly favourable and the overall acceptability was good in all batches in spite of the changes observed in texture. It can be established that this product can be enriched with inulin to a maximum level of 7.5% and preferably as gel with a good sensory quality.     

Nanofibrillated Cellulose as Functional Ingredient in Emulsion-Type Meat Products

The objective of this work was to introduce nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) in the formulation of cooked emulsion-type sausages with the aim of assessing its feasibility to assume the role or compensate the lack of some conventional functional ingredients, such as polyphosphates, maize starch, and sodium caseinate. For this aim, sausages based on standard commercial formula (control) including all three ingredients and sausages containing 0.5% NFC instead of phosphates and starch (NFC-1) or instead of phosphates, starch, and sodium caseinate (NFC-2) were produced and characterized. In NFC-1 samples, 0.5% nanofibrillated cellulose succeeds in replacing 0.5% polyphosphates and 1% starch without significantly altering the composition, nor negatively affecting the fat and water retention properties, neither of the raw batter or the cooked sausages. However, less stable meat batters and sausages with significantly reduced water-holding capacity were obtained when 1.5% sodium caseinate, in addition to phosphates and starch, was also removed (NFC-2). Nevertheless, results were hopeful enough to encourage further optimization studies, using several NFC concentrations and/or cellulose with different nanofibrillation degrees, in order to clarify whether it is possible to successfully replace also non-meat proteins in cooked emulsion-type sausages.     

Effects of sodium tripolyphosphate on functional properties of low‐salt single‐step high‐pressure processed chicken breast sausage

Influences of sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) contents (0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4%) on water holding capacity (WHC) and texture properties of low‐salt (1.2% NaCl) single‐step high‐pressure processed chicken breast sausages (LSSS‐HPP sausages) were evaluated. Results showed that WHC was improved (4–5%) by the addition of STPP. However, the STPP contents customarily used for cooked sausages (0.3–0.5%) were excessive for LSSS‐HPP sausages, causing a soft and tacky texture. Sausages containing 0.1% of STPP had the best taste according to the sensory evaluations. Chemical interactions plus Raman spectroscopic analysis revealed that STPP addition partly changed native structures of myofibrillar proteins. Furthermore, higher STPP contents in the meat batter prevented those proteins from high pressure denaturing and aggregating in the subsequent single‐step HPP procedure. Increased hydrogen bonds and decreased hydrophobic interactions explained the better WHC and softer texture. Therefore, 0.1% of STPP is the optimal content in the processing of new‐type LSSS‐HPP sausages.     

Partial replacement of meat by superworm (Zophobas morio larvae) in cooked sausages: Effect of heating temperature and insect:Meat ratio on structure and physical stability

The effect of different heating temperatures and different insect:meat ratios on the structural properties and water and fat stabilization of (hybrid) cooked sausages was studied. Structural properties were substantially reduced upon partial replacement of meat by insect, even when only 5 or 10% meat was replaced. Only for sausages with low insect contents (5 or 10% replacement) heated at 90 °C, similar viscoelastic properties compared to a standard cooked sausage could be obtained. However, textural properties remained inferior in all hybrid cooked sausages, even at high heating temperatures. The cooking loss was generally positively affected by the partial replacement of meat by insect, indicating good water and fat stabilization in hybrid cooked sausages during heating and cold storage. However, the hybrid cooked sausages destabilized more easily when subjected to an external force immediately after heating, resulting in an increased fluid release (both water and fat).Industrial relevanceThis study provides important insights with regards to the processing and composition of hybrid cooked sausages. Results showed that even the replacement of only 5% meat by insect negatively impacted the structure and physical stability (with the exception of cooking loss) of cooked sausages. Even though applying higher temperatures considerably improved some characteristics (e.g. amount of structure formation and structure stability), the hybrid cooked sausages remained inferior to a standard cooked sausage. Therefore, more research is needed to further improve their structural properties and water and fat stabilization.     

Effect of fat content on flavour release from sausages

The influence of fat content (5%, 10% and 15%) of sausage on the release of 10 volatile compounds with different physicochemical properties (log P and log ρL ranged between 1.01 and 4.23, and −0.66 and 1.69, respectively) was studied under static headspace (raw and cooked sausages) and in-mouth conditions (cooked sausages). Increasing fat content caused a general increase in the volatile compound concentrations of the sausages (fat acted as a reservoir) but a decrease in the compound concentration in the headspace and in the nosespace. The opposite effect was found for 3-methylbutanal and ethyl-2-methylbutanoate, which are more polar (low values for log P) and volatile (large values for log ρL) than the other compounds. Static headspace data revealed that the effect of fat content was larger in the raw samples than in the cooked sausages. The time to reach the maximum response for the compounds in the nosespace during mastication was not affected by fat content.     

米饭添加量对大米粉性质及粉条品质的影响

以早籼米为原料制成米饭并将其干燥研磨成粉末分别以5、10、15、20、25、30、35%的比例与生大米粉末混合,通过对大米粉的糊化和凝胶等理化特性以及粉条的蒸煮损失和拉伸性能进行分析,并结合感官评分,研究米饭添加量对大米粉性质及粉条品质的影响。结果表明：不同的米饭添加量糊化特性指标存在显著差异(P<0.05),主要是大米粉的糊化温度与米饭添加量成正比,峰值黏度、衰减值与米饭添加量成反比;其中添加量为15%的大米粉凝胶硬度、弹性、咀嚼性和回弹性最大,均显著(P<0.05)高于其他样品;溶解度和膨胀力则受米饭添加量的影响不显著。在粉条品质方面,米饭添加量≦15%时,随着米饭的添加,粉条的断条率、吐浆值降低,抗拉伸阻力、延伸度增大,感官品质提升;米饭添加量>15%时,则相反。因此,当米饭添加量为15%时,粉条的综合品质最佳。     

脂肪添加量对熏煮香肠质构的影响

研究了不同脂肪添加量(0%、10%、20%、30%、40%、50%)对熏煮香肠质构品质的影响。结果表明:随着脂肪添加量的增加,熏煮香肠的感官硬度逐渐下降,感官弹性先升高后下降,感官质构总分逐渐下降,但添加量20%、30%、40%的感官质构总分差异不显著(P>0.05);熏煮香肠的机械测定硬度、胶着性、回复性、内聚性、咀嚼性随着脂肪添加量的增加逐渐减小(P<0.05),而脂肪添加量对熏煮香肠的黏着性无显著影响(P>0.05)。硬度与脂肪含量呈现较好的线性关系:硬度值=-1 075.9×脂肪添加量+7 875.5(R2=0.932 8);依据质构机械测定值建立的Fisher线性判别方程能准确判别熏煮香肠的脂肪添加等级。     

降低食盐添加量对火腿肠的感官、质构及保水特性的影响

为研制低钠盐火腿肠,研究降低食盐添加量对火腿肠质量的影响。设置6个不同的食盐添加量梯度(以原料猪肉质量为基准计)：3%(对照)、2.5%、2.0%、1.5%、1.0%、0.5%,分别对产品的水分活度、保水性和质构进行测定,同时进行感官评分。结果表明：随着食盐添加量的降低,火腿肠的水分活度逐渐升高,而保水性逐渐下降;质构测定显示,产品的硬度、咀嚼度、黏聚性也随着食盐添加量的下降而降低,当食盐添加量极低时,这种下降趋势很明显,但弹性却变化不大;感官评定结果表明,随着食盐添加量的降低,火腿肠颜色变浅,切面粗糙,咸味下降,当食盐添加量降低到1.0%时不易被接受。因此,食盐对猪肉火腿肠的感官、质构和保水性等有着重要的作用,本研究为进一步调整配方开发低钠盐火腿肠提供了重要参考。     

Enhancement of the nutritional status and quality of fresh pork sausages following the addition of linseed oil, fish oil and natural antioxidants

Fresh pork sausages (pork shoulder, pork back fat, water, rusk and seasoning) were manufactured where 15% of the pork back fat was substituted with linseed oil (LO) or fish oil (FO). Green tea catechins (GTC) and green coffee antioxidant (GCA) were added to both LO (LGTC 200 and LGCA 200) and FO (FGTC 200 and FGCA 200) substituted sausages at a level of 200 mg/kg. Raw and cooked pork sausages were either over-wrapped with oxygen permeable film (aerobic storage) or stored in modified atmosphere packages (MAP) containing 80% O₂:20% CO₂ or 70% N₂:30% CO₂, respectively for 7 days at 4 °C. Effects on fatty acid profiles, lipid oxidation, colour and sensorial properties were investigated. α-Linolenic acid increased from 1.34% (control) to 8.91% (LO) and up to 11.2% (LGTC 200 and LGCA 200). Addition of fish oil increased levels of EPA from 0.05% (control) to 2.83% (FO), 3.02% (FGTC 200) and 2.87% (FGCA 200) and DHA levels increased from 0.04% (control) to a maximum of 1.93% (FGTC 200). Lipid oxidation was low in raw and cooked linseed oil containing sausages. GTC (200 mg/kg) significantly (P < 0.05) reduced lipid oxidation in raw fish oil containing sausages after 7 days of storage. Colour parameters in raw pork sausages were unaffected by the packaging atmosphere. L^* lightness values were lower (P < 0.05) in LGTC 200 and a^* redness values lower (P < 0.05) in LGTC 200 and FGTC 200 after 7 days of storage. Sensory scores of cooked pork sausages were unaffected by linseed oil addition. Flavour and overall acceptability scores in cooked fish oil containing sausages were improved by GTC addition. Results obtained demonstrate potential for the production of nutritionally enhanced fresh pork sausages.     

Utilization of black gram flour in beef sausages

British fresh beef skinless sausages were prepared in which 30% of the meat, on a protein to protein basis, was replaced by black gram flour. The raw substituted sausages had higher TBA values, were paler in colour and less acceptable than the controls but the general acceptability of the cooked sausages was not affected by the presence of the flour. During storage the substituted sausages discoloured more rapidly than the controls and, in addition, microbial growth became evident sooner. However, moist heat treatment of the flour prior to incorporation in the batter eliminated all these defects so that both the raw and cooked products were as acceptable as the controls. In all sausages, incorporation of black gram flour led to increased cooking losses and softer textures.     

Evaluation of the effects of selected plant-derived nutraceuticals on the quality and shelf-life stability of raw and cooked pork sausages

The effect of lutein (200 μg/g meat), sesamol (250 μg/g meat), ellagic acid (300 μg/g meat) and olive leaf extract (200 μg/g meat) on total viable counts (TVC), pH, water holding capacity (WHC), cooking loss, lipid oxidation (thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, TBARs), colour stability, texture and sensory evaluation of fresh and cooked pork sausages stored in aerobic or modified atmosphere packs (MAP) was investigated. Addition of sesamol, ellagic acid and olive leaf extract reduced (P < 0.001) lipid oxidation in all packaged raw and cooked pork sausages. Antioxidant potency followed the order: sesamol 250 > ellagic acid 300 > olive leaf extract 200 > lutein 200 for both raw and cooked pork sausages. Addition of sesamol increased (P < 0.001) WHC on days 2 and 12 of MAP storage. Meat addition of lutein, sesamol, ellagic acid and olive leaf extract had no detrimental effect on pH, cooking losses, TVCs, tenderness, juiciness, texture or product flavour. Lutein, sesamol, ellagic acid and olive leaf extract were effective as natural functional ingredients in suppressing lipid oxidation and have the potential to be incorporated into functional raw and cooked pork sausages.     

Fructooligosaccharides as a fat replacer in fermented cooked sausages

Fermented cooked sausages with a 50% reduction in pork back fat and addition of 0%, 3%, 6% or 9% of fructooligosaccharides (FOS) were produced and studied during manufacturing and storage. Their production was monitored by physicochemical (pH, water activity, weight loss, proximate composition, colour and texture profiles) and microbiological analysis (aerobic mesophiles, lactic acid bacteria, and total and faecal coliforms). During storage, it was evaluated the sensory properties, stability to lipid oxidation and microbiological safety. The final fat content of the control was 27.54%. F0, F3, F6 and F9 treatments had final fat contents of 17.63%, 17.55%, 17.91% and 17.59%, respectively, representing an approximately 40% reduction in the fat content. The simple reduction in pork back fat without fat substitute adversely affected the technological and sensory properties of the fermented cooked sausages, but the addition of FOS suppressed the defects caused by the fat reduction. The content of FOS did not changed during storage, indicating that this functional prebiotic compound can be used for developing of reduced fat fermented meat products.     

Enhancement of the nutritional status and quality of fresh pork sausages following the addition of linseed oil,fish oil and natural antioxidants

Fresh pork sausages (pork shoulder, pork back fat, water, rusk and seasoning) were manufactured where 15% of the pork back fat was substituted with linseed oil (LO) or fish oil (FO). Green tea catechins (GTC) and green coffee antioxidant (GCA) were added to both LO (LGTC 200 and LGCA 200) and FO (FGTC 200 and FGCA 200) substituted sausages at a level of 200 mg/kg. Raw and cooked pork sausages were either over-wrapped with oxygen permeable film (aerobic storage) or stored in modified atmosphere packages (MAP) containing 80% O₂:20% CO₂ or 70% N₂:30% CO₂, respectively for 7 days at 4 °C. Effects on fatty acid profiles, lipid oxidation, colour and sensorial properties were investigated. α-Linolenic acid increased from 1.34% (control) to 8.91% (LO) and up to 11.2% (LGTC 200 and LGCA 200). Addition of fish oil increased levels of EPA from 0.05% (control) to 2.83% (FO), 3.02% (FGTC 200) and 2.87% (FGCA 200) and DHA levels increased from 0.04% (control) to a maximum of 1.93% (FGTC 200). Lipid oxidation was low in raw and cooked linseed oil containing sausages. GTC (200 mg/kg) significantly (P < 0.05) reduced lipid oxidation in raw fish oil containing sausages after 7 days of storage. Colour parameters in raw pork sausages were unaffected by the packaging atmosphere. L¹ lightness values were lower (P < 0.05) in LGTC 200 and a¹ redness values lower (P < 0.05) in LGTC 200 and FGTC 200 after 7 days of storage. Sensory scores of cooked pork sausages were unaffected by linseed oil addition. Flavour and overall acceptability scores in cooked fish oil containing sausages were improved by GTC addition. Results obtained demonstrate potential for the production of nutritionally enhanced fresh pork sausages.     

The effect of salt reduction on sensory quality and microbial growth in hotdog sausages,bacon, ham and salami

Sodium chloride (NaCl) is a multi-functional ingredient used to inhibit microbial growth and to ensure good texture and taste in processed meat. This study showed how moderately (22–25%) and greatly (43–50%) reduction of NaCl affected yield, sensory quality and microbial growth in hotdog sausages, bacon, cooked cured ham and salami. In greatly reduced products, the yield was reduced by 8% in sausages and 6% in ham, whereas the yield in bacon and salami remained unaffected. The microbial growth was generally not affected by reducing the content of NaCl to 2.0% in sausages, 2.3% in bacon, 1.7% in ham and 6.3% in salami (aqueous phase). Salt taste, juiciness and texture were the sensory parameters most affected by the NaCl reduction. In sausages and ham, reduction from 2.2% to 1.7% and from 2.3% to 1.3% (w/w), respectively, did not alter the sensory properties. In contrast, the sensory properties of bacon and salami were significantly affected already after a moderately reduction.     

Dairy Ingredients effects on sausage sensory properties studied by principal component analysis

The effects of dairy ingredients (1, 3, 5%)–ordinary and high-viscosity sodium caseinate, skim-milk powder, whey protein or demineralized whey powder–on sensory properties and instrumental texture and color of sausages, were investigated. Sausages were formulated with 2 or 4% potato starch and cooked to a core temperature of 76 or 82°C. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed three dominating factors for sensory properties; the first related to dairy ingredients and starch concentrations, the two others to type of dairy ingredients. Results were verified by analysis of variance (ANOVA). Results of sensory analysis were further verified by textural and color analysis using PCA and ANOVA, respectively.     

The effect of preheated tendon as a lean meat replacement on the properties of fine emulsion sausages

Tendon from beef hind leg muscles was used to replace some of the lean in a conventional emulsion formulation. The tendon was homogenized and either used raw or preheated for 2·5 h at a range of temperatures (50, 60, 70, 80°C) before use. Texture analysis and sensory evaluation were performed on cylinders of cooked sausage. Texture analysis was carried out on formulations which had 20% of meat protein replaced by 20% tendons which were raw or had been preheated to 50, 60, 70, or 80°C. Fracturability decreased by about 40% with raw tendon, but was restored to within 20% of the no-replacement control if the tendon had been preheated. Hardness was approximately doubled by replacement with raw tendon or tendon heated at 50°C. At temperatures higher than that, hardness returned to approximately no-replacement levels. For sensory evaluation (0-25% replacement; preheating at 70°C), sausages were assessed by a 12-member panel for texture, flavour and overall acceptability. All attributes decreased with increasing collagen content, the decrease being less marked with preheated tendon. Thus more connective tissue could be added for the same panel score if the tissue was preheated. Comparison of the texture profile and the panel scores for texture at the same lean replacement level suggested that reduced fracturability was the texture parameter that panellists objected to when heated tendon replaced some of the lean. Other researchers have shown that connective tissue preheated to 100°C before addition in emulsion sausages results in improved yields and better sensory attributes, but the present results show that temperatures as low as 60°C can be effective for beef tendon.