International genetic evaluations of Holstein sires for milk somatic cell and clinical mastitis

International genetic evaluations for milk somatic cell and clinical mastitis have been implemented on a routine basis by Interbull. This paper examines possible genetic consequences of such evaluations. Holstein data from 12 countries were used for this purpose. Trait definitions and national genetic evaluation procedures were first summarized and showed that differences between countries existed. Estimated genetic correlations among milk somatic cell in these countries ranged from 0.47 to 0.97, with a median of 0.88. Estimated genetic correlations among clinical mastitis in three Nordic countries ranged from 0.59 to 0.83, and estimated genetic correlations between clinical mastitis in the three Nordic countries and milk somatic cell in the non-Nordic countries ranged from 0.37 to 0.78 with a median of 0.55. Bulls without daughter information in the Nordic countries had low reliabilities on the Nordic clinical mastitis scales. International genetic evaluations for milk somatic cell and clinical mastitis enable a broader selection among foreign bulls, and higher selection differentials were found when using international evaluations compared with national evaluations.     

Calibration of infrared milk analyzers: modified milk versus producer milk

Mid-infrared (MIR) milk analyzers are traditionally calibrated using sets of preserved raw individual producer milk samples. The goal of this study was to determine if the use of sets of preserved pasteurized modified milks improved calibration performance of MIR milk analyzers compared with calibration sets of producer milks. The preserved pasteurized modified milk sets exhibited more consistent day-to-day and set-to-set calibration slope and intercept values for all components compared with the preserved raw producer milk calibration sets. Pasteurized modified milk calibration samples achieved smaller confidence interval (CI) around the regression line (i.e., calibration uncertainty). Use of modified milk calibration sets with a larger component range, more even distribution of component concentrations within the ranges, and the lower correlation of fat and protein concentrations than producer milk calibration sets produced a smaller 95% CI for the regression line due to the elimination of moderate and high leverage samples. The CI for the producer calibration sets were about 2 to 12 times greater than the CI for the modified milk calibration sets, depending on the component. Modified milk calibration samples have the potential to produce MIR milk analyzer calibrations that will perform better in validation checks than producer milk-based calibrations by reducing the mean difference and standard deviation of the difference between instrument values and reference chemistry.     

Application of genomics to grapevine improvement

Imagine a breeder browsing a grape chromosome nucleotide-by-nucleotide around a trait locus, scrolling down the list of catalogued genes along a genetic interval, resequencing for a few thousand dollars a potential parent or a selected breeding line. In the past couple of years, this vision has become a reality. The availability of the reference genome sequence has provided significant assistance in the saturation of loci with targeted genetic markers. Grape breeders are now offered unprecedented possibilities for selecting plants using deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sequences within or near the gene that controls a desirable trait rather than handling their phenotypes. Genomics-assisted selection offers unique advantages in the correct choice of elite genotypes, in order to improve traits for which limitations of phenotyping technologies or low hereditability adversely affect the efficiency of phenotypic selection. DNA technologies enable the application of marker-assisted selection to thousands of grape seedlings every year, which was previously feasible only for cereals and annuals, enhancing the possibilities of finding an ideal recombinant in populations bred from highly heterozygous parents. The expected outcome is a renewal of the varietal choices available to viticulturists, with novel genotypes that meet the demand for disease-free vines and flavourful grapes. The depth of exploration and characterisation of the existing germplasm is crucial for translating natural diversity into new varieties that could perform beyond the fence of the experimental vineyards and gain substantial market share. We review here how current achievements in genomics and genome sequencing are expected to increase the efficiency of grapevine breeding programs.     

基因组学在食品工业中的应用

食品工业的发展直接关系到人类生活的质量和安全。伴随着人类基因组计划的实施,作为世界学科发展前沿的基因组学正在高速发展,其在食品工业中的应用也受到广泛关注。简要介绍了基因组学在食品工业中的应用,主要是提高食品的营养价值,即开发高营养的食品原料和改善食品工业生产相关微生物的功能特性。     

毛细管电泳法对乳及乳制品中乳源蛋白的研究

采用毛细管电泳方法对原料乳、市售鲜奶、不同厂家的巴氏灭菌乳、不同厂家和产地超高温灭菌乳(UHT)、调味乳、乳酸饮料、复原乳、酸奶、奶粉中蛋白成分进行检测。选择聚乙烯醇涂层毛细管,采用柠檬酸缓冲体系,在紫外检测214nm、分离电压20kV条件下对乳及乳制品中的α一乳白蛋白(α-La)、β一乳球蛋白(β-Lg)、α-酪蛋白(α-CN)、β-酪蛋白(β-CN)和k-酪蛋白(k-CN)进行分离测定。结果表明:五种蛋白的含量在原料乳(巴氏灭菌乳、市售鲜奶)、UHT乳、酸奶、调味乳、乳酸饮料、复原乳中依次降低,而UHT乳含量随保质期的增加而减少,奶粉中蛋白质含量因其适应人群而有差异。乳及乳制品中蛋白质的含量与其存在形式、产地及加工工艺相关。     

鲜乳及乳粉糊精掺假问题

目前,我国鲜牛（羊）乳及乳制品掺假是一个较为普遍的现象。鲜乳掺假会增加乳品加工企业的原料收购费及贮存、运输和加工成本,还严重威胁着产品质量,甚至决定着企业的生存和发展。俗话说“千里之堤,溃于蚁穴”,事实上,确有不少企业因无力控制乳原料掺假等等质量问题,在群雄逐鹿的乳品及冷饮市场竞争中不堪一击,不得不偃旗息鼓,被迫抱怨退出！而有的企业,则以低价倾销假冒伪劣乳制品的手段来打击竞争对手、占领市场,极大的破坏了乳品行业的利益,消弱了乳制品市场发展的后劲。然而,鲜乳及乳制品掺假不单是产品质量问题、企业声誉…     

Reduction of milk and milk product wastage

The paper examines the assessment of waste control based on effluent monitoring and the results of a BOD test for 'milk equivalent' measurement are interpreted and evaluated. The importance of reliable flow measurement is stressed and a table is given showing wastage from various dairy operations and methods of reducing losses recommended.     

Effects of milk powders in milk chocolate

The physical characteristics of milk powders used in chocolate can have significant impact on the processing conditions needed to make that chocolate and the physical and organoleptic properties of the finished product. Four milk powders with different particle characteristics (size, shape, density) and "free" milk fat levels (easily extracted with organic solvent) were evaluated for their effect on the processing conditions and characteristics of chocolates in which they were used. Many aspects of chocolate manufacture and storage (tempering conditions, melt rheology, hardness, bloom stability) were dependent on the level of free milk fat in the milk powder. However, particle characteristics of the milk powder also influenced the physical and sensory properties of the final products.     

Investigations on milk flow and milk yield from teats with milk flow disorders

The objective of this study was to investigate peak milk flow, average milk flow, and milk yield in teats with milk flow disorders. A total of 100 hard milking teats were studied in 97 cows. Teats with milk flow disorders were examined endoscopically. Quarter milk flow and quarter milk yield were examined with four Lactocorders attached to a quarter milking machine. Peak milk flow, average milk flow, and milk yield were measured in all teats of the udder before treatment of the affected teat, as well as 1 and 6 mo later. Teats with milk flow disorders were compared to all other teats of the same udder. Before treatment, peak milk flow from affected teats was 20%, average milk flow 14%, and milk yield 53% of the control teats, adjusted for other significant explanatory variables. Milk flow and milk yield increased after surgical treatment of the affected teats. Six months after treatment peak milk flow was 79%, average milk flow 76%, milk yield was 71% compared with control teats. We conclude from these findings that teat endoscopy and measuring quarter milk flow and milk yield with Lactocorders are useful tools for examining teats with milk flow disorders.     

山羊奶与牛奶和人奶营养成分的比较

对山羊奶、牛奶和人奶中蛋白质、脂肪、维生素、矿物质等主要营养成分进行了比较,分析了3种奶中主要营养成分的差别。通过比较发现,山羊奶在总体营养成分方面优于牛奶,更接近人奶。但山羊奶存在铁、叶酸和维生素B12含量较低以及羊奶膻味的问题,应在营养上对这方面加以重视。     

生乳中豆浆、米汤掺假鉴别及其定量测定

为鉴别生乳掺假,采用非线性化学指纹图谱技术,建立基于"溴酸钠+硫酸锰+硫酸+丙酮"稳态体系的不同奶源地的纯生乳及掺入不同量豆浆、米汤的生乳的非线性化学指纹图谱,利用指纹图谱的直观特征信息能很好地将掺豆浆、米汤的生乳鉴别出来,并能对掺假物的种类进行判断。根据掺假生乳指纹图谱参数信息与掺假量的关系,可对生乳中掺入豆浆、米汤的相对含量进行评估。非线性化学指纹图谱技术为原料乳中豆浆、米汤的掺假鉴别及掺入物质的相对含量的评价提供了一种新的方法。     

Xylella genomics and bacterial pathogenicity to plants

Xylella fastidiosa, a pathogen of citrus, is the first plant pathogenic bacterium for which the complete genome sequence has been published. Inspection of the sequence reveals high relatedness to many genes of other pathogens, notably Xanthomonas campestris. Based on this, we suggest that Xylella possesses certain easily testable properties that contribute to pathogenicity. We also present some general considerations for deriving information on pathogenicity from bacterial genomics.     

Pharmacogenomics: the genomics of drug response

Pharmacogenomics is defined as the study of the association between genetics and drug response. This is a rapidly expanding field with the hope that, within a few years, prospective genotyping will lead to patients being prescribed drugs which are both safer and more effective ('the right drug for the right patient', or personalized medicine). There are many existing examples in the literature of strong associations between genetic variation and drug response, and some of these even form the basis of accepted clinical tests. The molecular basis for some of these associations is described, and includes examples of variation in genes responsible for absorption and metabolism of the drug, and in target and disease genes. However, there are many issues surrounding the legal, regulatory and ethical framework to these studies that remain unanswered, and a huge amount of education both for the public and healthcare professionals will be needed before the results of this new medicine can be widely accepted.     

花生基因组资源的开发及应用

花生是世界主要的油料作物,但由于花生本身的遗传特性,导致其基因组资源的开发和利用存在较大难度。花生的高度闭花授粉、初级基因库遗传基础狭窄以及栽培种与二倍体近缘野生种之间的杂交不亲和性,导致花生栽培种的分子遗传多样性偏低,成为花生分子遗传改良的主要瓶颈。然而,近五年来,花生基因组资源开发迅速,分子标记的开发、遗传和物理图谱的构建、表达序列标签（ESTs）的产生、突变体资源的创建和功能基因组学平台的构建促进了QTL的鉴定以及与农艺性状相关的耐/抗生物和非生物胁迫基因的挖掘。本文概述了当前花生基因组资源的研究现状,并对发展方向进行了展望。     

Insights into molecular evolution from yeast genomics

Enabled by comparative genomics, yeasts have increasingly developed into a powerful model system for molecular evolution. Here we survey several areas in which yeast studies have made important contributions, including regulatory evolution, gene duplication and divergence, evolution of gene order and evolution of complexity. In each area we highlight key studies and findings based on techniques ranging from statistical analysis of large datasets to direct laboratory measurements of fitness. Future work will combine traditional evolutionary genetics analysis and experimental evolution with tools from systems biology to yield mechanistic insight into complex phenotypes. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.