Geological challenges in constructing the proposed Geba dam site, northern Ethiopia

It is proposed to construct a dam across the Geba River, Ethiopia. The paper reports the engineering geological investigations undertaken, including mapping, discontinuity surveys, core drilling, water absorption testing and sampling for laboratory tests. The complexity of the site, with limestones and interbedded limestone-shale horizons, is indicated by the variability of the RQD and Lugeon values. Of the 63 tests undertaken, some two-thirds had Lugeon values implying grouting was necessary. Following removal and replacement of the alluvial deposits in the central area, a grout curtain including two to three rows of grouting holes was recommended to a depth of 100 m for the left abutment, 35 m for the central foundation and 60 m for the right abutment.     

Evaluation of drainage system around a lined pilot cavern for underground cryogenic LNG storage

A lined pilot cavern for underground cryogenic LNG (liquefied natural gas) storage was constructed in granite in Daejeon, Korea in 2003 and commissioned in 2004. As the hydrostatic pressure of groundwater and thermal stress due to the formation of ice lenses may damage the containment system, rock drainage around the pilot cavern is needed to maintain the stability of the containment system. Once the drainage works were completed, the level of groundwater around the pilot cavern was controlled using drainage holes to form an ice ring as a second barrier to prevent the leakage of LNG from the cavern. In order to establish the drainage system for the pilot cavern, 15 boreholes were drilled into the rock. Fractures in the rock mass around the pilot cavern were characterized to determine the most appropriate orientation for the drainage holes. The major joints acting as conduits for inflow water were designed for efficient drainage. After the 15 drainage holes were drilled and their efficiency tested during the dry season in April 2003, it was found that there was a problem with the inflow of water through the main joint along the right-hand wall of the cavern, indicating the system was less efficient on the right-hand side. Hence, three more boreholes were drilled in the correct direction on the right-hand wall of the cavern. A second drainage test was conducted during the rainy season in August. This showed some seepage into the bottom of the pilot cavern. In order to reduce this seepage, two more additional drainage holes were drilled and grouted below the concrete invert. Although the drainage system was very efficient, weak points in the system were found by testing and changes were made to the system to improve its efficiency.     

Resolving serious seepage through karstified limestone at the Mujib Dam, Jordan

The 67 m high Mujib Dam (Jordan) was built between 1999 and 2003 in Cretaceous limestone with intercalated marls in the middle of the section. Initial investigations indicated only moderate permeability, hence prior to impoundment a normal grouting program was undertaken extending to 50 m in depth. Initially, little seepage was observed when the lower section of the reservoir was filled. After a dry summer, heavy rainfall filled the reservoir overnight to its maximum water level (194 m a.s.l.). A sudden seepage began downstream of the right abutment, which reached 140 l/s by morning, increasing to up to 240 l/s during the following 2 weeks. Although a second grouting program reduced the seepage to some 3 l/s of highly mineralized water, there were concerns as to the adequacy of the Phase 1 grouting. A detailed analysis of the testing and grouting results indicated that the hydraulic pressures created by the sudden increase of water in the reservoir had washed out the natural infill which had previously sealed karstic voids.     

小浪底缓倾角结构坝基的渗漏及示踪探测研究

小浪底水电站(以下简称小浪底)左岸具有缓倾角结构坝基，30^#排水洞中排水量偏大，防渗帷幕经补强加固后效果仍不明显，渗流十分复杂。从层状结构岩体的渗透性出发，应用现代示踪理论与方法，分析了小浪底左岸缓倾角结构坝基的渗透性，认为30^#排水洞中的排水存在不同的补给方式，排水洞北侧的排水量最大，库水通过切层裂隙贯穿相对隔水岩层T1^3-2。越流进入T1^3-1透水岩层，最后从排水洞排出，己形成了由裂隙网络组成的集中渗漏通道，并通过连通试验证实，30^#排水洞其他部位的排水量较小，由库水、尾水和黄河水经浅层渗漏补给。建议推广应用现代示踪理论与方法解决重大水工建筑物复杂的渗流问题。     

Analyses of the grouting results for a section of the APSE tunnel at Äspö Hard Rock Laboratory

The grouting results for a tunnel at a depth of 450 m in crystalline rock at Äspö HRL were studied. The aims were to investigate whether the methodology used resulted in a successful grouting design and producing a sufficiently dry tunnel, and whether grout penetration and inflow into the finished tunnel corresponded to the predictions. An analysis was made of data from an original cored borehole, drilled before the tunnel was constructed and mapped thoroughly with regard to fractures and transmissivities. The predicted inflow into the tunnel was calculated and found to be four times higher than the measured inflow. The latter was 5 l/min along the 70 m tunnel, considered to be a good result at the current depth. New cored control boreholes were drilled along a section of the tunnel. The inflow positions and quantities in these holes, and the positions of grout found in the corresponding cores, were compared with the data from the original borehole. It was found that at the predicted positions of larger fractures, grout was observed and there was no inflow, showing that these had been successfully sealed. At the predicted positions of small fractures, no grout was visible in the cores, and small inflows showed that the grout had not sealed these fractures. The results indicated that cement-based grout successfully sealed fractures down to a hydraulic aperture of about 50 μm but not below 30 μm. This concurs with the initial design aimed at sealing fractures larger than 50 μm.     

Experimental study of water curtain performance for gas storage in an underground cavern

An artificial water curtain system is composed of a network of underground galleries and horizontal boreholes drilled from these galleries.Pre-grouting measures are introduced to keep the bedrock saturated all the time.This system is deployed over an artificial or natural underground cavern used for the storage of gas（or some other fluids） to prevent the gas from escaping through leakage paths in the rock mass.An experimental physical modeling system has been constructed to evaluate the performance of artificial water curtain systems under various conditions.These conditions include different spacings of caverns and cavern radii located below the natural groundwater level.The principles of the experiment,devices,design of the physical model,calculation of gas leakage,and evaluation of the critical gas pressure are presented in this paper.Experimental result shows that gas leakage is strongly affected by the spacing of water curtain boreholes,the critical gas pressure,and the number and proximity of storage caverns.The hydraulic connection between boreholes is observed to vary with depth or location,which suggests that the distribution of water-conducting joint sets along the boreholes is also variable.When designing the drainage system for a cavern,drainage holes should be orientated to maximize the frequency at which they encounter major joint sets and permeable intervals studying in order to maintain the seal on the cavern through water pressure.Our experimental results provide a significant contribution to the theoretical controls on water curtains,and they can be used to guide the design and construction of practical storage caverns.     

Sensitivity analysis of effective parameters on water curtain performance for crude oil storage in Iranian URC using the 2k factorial design and numerical modeling

Underground storage of hydrocarbons in unlined rock caverns (URC) has advantages over above-ground storage in terms of safety, environmental protection and economy. However seepage of products can cause many environmental and economical problems. Water curtain system is used as a part of hydrodynamic method to control seepage. Water curtains system is composed of a network of underground galleries and horizontal boreholes drilled from these galleries to establish groundwater pressure artificially. Iranian crude oil unlined storage caverns are to be excavated in Asmari limestone formation. This study aimed to clarify the effects of effective parameters on water curtains performance in the establishment of water pressure. To aim this purpose 2^k factorial statistical experimental design and numerical modeling using FLAC3D has been employed to evaluate the performance of artificial water curtain systems under various conditions include equivalent permeability and effective porosity of Asmari limestone, borehole pressure, borehole spacing and elevation, groundwater level and operation time of boreholes before the storage operation. The results showed that borehole pressure, permeability, borehole elevation and porosity have most significant effect in order of magnitude respectively. Regression model for 2^k factorial design was presented as well.     

金川水电站地下厂房裂隙围岩渗控效应数值模拟与评价

针对金川水电站工程区复杂的地质条件和渗控措施,分别建立基于排水孔等效模拟的坝基整体模型和基于密集排水孔"弃孔算法"精细模拟的左岸厂区子模型,采用Signorini型变分不等式和自适应罚函数相结合的稳定渗流分析方法对厂区围岩的长期渗控效应进行论证和敏感性分析。在数值模拟中,为了克服传统分析所采用的均质各向同性渗透系数不能反映裂隙岩体渗透特性的不足,首先根据两岸和坝基岩体优势裂隙组的空间展布情况,基于统计学方法初步确定其渗透系数张量并获得主值及主方向,再根据钻孔压水试验资料确定的等效渗透系数对其进行修正,并通过坝址区的地下水位反分析对该方法进行了验证。结果表明,运行期工况下防渗排水系统对山体地下水位具有控制作用,主变洞和发电机层底板处于自由面之上,厂房和调压室底板稍有承压性。帷幕的渗透特性、辅助排水孔幕以及排水孔间距对渗流场分布影响很小但能显著减小厂房洞室及排水廊道的渗漏量,因此应保证防渗帷幕的施工质量并建议设置辅助排水孔幕,建议中层廊道以下的排水孔间距设为3 m,中层廊道以上的排水孔间距放宽到4.5 m。     

地下水封石油储备库初始渗流场数值反演分析

渗流场分析是地下水封石油储备库设计的重要内容,而合理可靠的渗透系数是准确分析裂隙岩体渗流场的前提。以黄岛地下水封石油储备库工程为背景,对库区初始渗流场进行反演分析。首先,采用离散元3DEC软件直接生成尺寸分别为5 m×5 m,10 m×10 m,15 m×15 m,20 m×20 m,25 m×25 m,30 m×30 m的三维节理离散网络模型,并给出判别模型与节理相交的条件;基于裂隙介质的渗透张量理论,利用 MATLAB计算不同尺寸的裂隙岩体渗透张量,并确定了库区裂隙岩体表征体单元(REV)的大小,并结合库区现场试验实测数据,对节理裂隙岩体的渗透张量进行校核;最后,采用COMSOL Multiphysics软件,在裂隙岩体渗透系数各向异性条件下,反演库区的初始渗流场。研究成果为地下水封石油储备库水封性评价及稳定性分析提供较合理的初始渗流场条件。     

大连地下石油储备库洞室群围岩稳定性及渗流场分析

为分析水封式大连地下石油储备库洞室群围岩稳定性及渗流场特征,首先基于现场地应力实测结果的回归分析,利用Fish语言编写函数,反演初始地应力场。其次,采用三维离散元程序3DEC生成三维节理网络模型,反演库区初始渗流场的各向异性特征。最后,利用应力与渗流耦合模块实施开挖仿真计算,获取围岩应力场、位移场变化特征。考虑平行、垂直层理面不同材料特性,基于带有抗拉的Mohr-Coulomb强度储备型点安全系数,定量评价洞室群的稳定性。借鉴国外水封效果评价标准,分别从地下水位线和垂直水力坡降2个方面,分析渗流场变化特征。研究表明:在洞室周边平行层理面点安全系数为1.02～1.25,垂直层理面点安全系数为1.95～2.00。在补水隧道及注水孔组成的人工水幕系统作用下,建设期内地下水位下降3～5 m,地下水位距洞室顶55 m。开挖洞室附近平均垂直水力坡降大于1.0,满足设计规范及密封性要求。     

Effects of anisotropic permeability of fractured rock masses on underground oil storage caverns

An isotropic assumption is often applied to analyze permeability tests of in situ fractured rock mass, and the homogeneous hydraulic conductivities are then used directly in the seepage analysis. However, the hydraulic conductivities are normally anisotropic in fractured rock masses and the effects of the anisotropic permeability should be taken into account in rock engineering analysis, especially for seepage analysis of underground oil storage caverns. In this study, an underground oil storage cavern project is analyzed and the Oda’s method is used to determine the anisotropy in permeability, where the anisotropy in permeability is determined using the fracture orientation and the in situ stress information from the field survey. The horizontal hydraulic conductivities are obtained based on the geometric average hydraulic conductivities from the injection tests of six boreholes. A typical cavern unit is numerical modeled using code FLAC. The effects of anisotropic permeability on water pressure, water quantities and critical gas pressure are studied carefully. The results indicate that most calculated results based on in situ hydraulic tests with isotropic permeability assumption can be used safely in the underground oil storage cavern project.     

Application of seismic tomography for detecting potential seepage paths in Bakhtyari Dam, Iran

Bakhtyari Dam and Hydropower Plant Project is one of the largest hydroelectric projects in Iran. This dam is located in Lorestan, in southern Iran, on the Bakhtyari river, which is a headstream of the Dez River. Previous gallery surveying showed that some open joints were present in the abutments. These joints may act as a good conduit for seepage. Five galleries were used to carry out seismic tomography in the right and left abutments (GR1, GR2 and GR3, GL2–GL3, totally 765 m). The objective of the tomography was to detect these weak zones susceptible for seepage. Velocity images obtained by P-wave travel time tomography indicated that in the level of GR2 gallery upward there is a large zone of low velocity. But the rock mass quality seems better in the left abutment. In spite of unfavorable condition in R₂₃ block (GR2–GR3), the P-wave velocity between GR2 and GR1 galleries is in the range of undisturbed limestone. Despite the presence of these weak zones, the placement of the dam is where the rock mass quality is good, and the design of the grout curtain could help to bypass the reservoir water away from these seepage paths.     

水泥复合浆液在治理涌水涌砂基坑中的应用

本文研究的CWP水泥复合浆液含有水玻璃 (速凝剂 )和偏磷酸盐 (缓凝剂 )。水泥水化热试验和复合浆液可泵期试验证明 ,在CWP水泥复合浆液中 ,用磷酸二氢铵作缓凝剂效果最好。研制了三种复合浆液 (早凝型、早强型和防渗型 )的流变性、稳定性和结石体强度 ,并介绍了其中两种复合浆液在基坑抢险注浆工程中的应用。     

Traitement de fondation du barrage Sidi Aïch par injection de coulis de ciment

A study of potential catchment areas in Tunisia recommended that a dam be constructed on the Sidi Aïch Oued in central Tunisia. Although this zone was known for its aridity, the dam would collect runoff waters during periods of exceptional rainfall with the principal aim of ensuring that the water table in the Gafsa was recharged. The geological and hydrogeologic conditions required particular attention to be paid to the foundations of the Sidi Aïch dam to take account of the lithological variability, fracture network and the faults that pass through the dam site. Two treatment techniques were found to be appropriate and were used to enhance the stability and watertightness of the ground in which the dam was to be constructed: contact-consolidation grouting and curtain grouting. Studies were made of the water absorption both before and after the grouting was undertaken. In order to verify the effectiveness of the treatment, cored boreholes were dug which showed the absence of permeable zones immediately below the deep grout curtain, confirming that the work had extended to an appropriate depth. The observed absorption variability in the foundation excavations indicated that a zone of potential high grout take would be encountered. The lateral heterogeneity, observed from one well to another, explained the variable level at which the dam was founded and the differing quantities of grout injected along the length of the grout curtain of the dam. The work concluded that, except for high absorption in localised areas, the main grout take was related to the fractures present in the rock mass.     

Determination of the maximum allowable gas pressure for an underground gas storage salt cavern——A case study of Jintan,China

Increasing the allowable gas pressure of underground gas storage (UGS) is one of the most effective methods to increase its working gas capacity. In this context, hydraulic fracturing tests are implemented on the target formation for the UGS construction of Jintan salt caverns, China, in order to obtain the minimum principal in situ stress and the fracture breakdown pressure. Based on the test results, the maximum allowable gas pressure of the Jintan UGS salt cavern is calibrated. To determine the maximum allowable gas pressure, KING-1 and KING-2 caverns are used as examples. A three-dimensional (3D) geomechanical model is established based on the sonar data of the two caverns with respect to the features of the target formation. New criteria for evaluating gas penetration failure and gas seepage are proposed. Results show that the maximum allowable gas pressure of the Jintan UGS salt cavern can be increased from 17 MPa to 18 MPa (i.e. a gradient of about 18 kPa/m at the casing shoe depth). Based on numerical results, a field test with increasing maximum gas pressure to 18 MPa has been carried out in KING-1 cavern. Microseismic monitoring has been conducted during the test to evaluate the safety of the rock mass around the cavern. Field monitoring data show that KING-1 cavern is safe globally when the maximum gas pressure is increased from 17 MPa to 18 MPa. This shows that the geomechanical model and criteria proposed in this context for evaluating the maximum allowable gas pressure are reliable.     

Potential hazards to a tunnel caused by adjacent reservoir impoundment

A reservoir impoundment located near a tunnel structure negatively affects groundwater seepage to varying degrees. This can result in water inflow, structural collapse, and other engineering hazards during tunnel excavation. In addition, in cold regions, reservoir impoundment and water seepage can exacerbate frost heave damage during tunnel operations. This paper describes a comprehensive case study on the quantitative evaluation of the seepage effects of the proposed Longsheng Reservoir on the adjacent proposed Kouzi village tunnel (located in Ulanchap, Inner Mongolia, North China). An engineering geology survey was conducted to identify the topography and geological features in the tunnel and reservoir area. A geohydrological survey was conducted to identify groundwater runoff patterns and to assess the possible seepage paths. Pumping and injection tests were conducted to characterize the in-situ permeability of the strata. Based on the detailed field information, the seepage field and stress field of the study area were investigated using COMSOL Multiphysics and ABAQUS software. From these numerical simulations, the evolution of the water inflow and the stress/strain field in the shallow buried section of the tunnel could be predicted quantitatively at different construction and operation stages. This study showed that the seepage influence of the Longsheng Reservoir on the Kouzi village tunnel during the excavation and operational stages will be relatively weak. However, structural collapse of the tunnel and water inflow are likely to occur beneath the two gullies. Mitigation measures such as impervious walls and inverted arch structural elements were proposed to address these potential hazards.

     

Drip sealing of tunnels in hard rock: A new concept for the design and evaluation of permeation grouting

This paper presents a new pre-excavation grouting concept to prevent dripping and reduce the inflow into a railway tunnel. For this purpose, the tunnel’s roof was drip-sealed using colloidal silica and the walls and invert of the tunnel were grouted with cement. The grouting design process followed a structured approach with pre-investigations of core-drilled boreholes providing parameters for the layout. Water pressure tests and pressure volume time recordings were used for the evaluation. Results showed that the design was successful: the total transmissivity was reduced from 4.9 × 10^?08 m²/s to the measurement limit (1.6 × 10^?08 m²/s), and the dripping was reduced to eight spots from the roof. Improved rock characterisation showed that the grout hole separation was within the transmissivity correlation length and that grouting efficiency depends to a large extent on the dimensionality of the flow system of the rock mass.     

Estimation of deformation and stiffness of fractures close to tunnels using data from single-hole hydraulic testing and grouting

Sealing of tunnels in fractured rocks is commonly performed by pre- or post-excavation grouting. The grouting boreholes are frequently drilled close to the tunnel wall, an area where rock stresses can be low and fractures can more easily open up during grout pressurization. In this paper we suggest that data from hydraulic testing and grouting can be used to identify grout-induced fracture opening, to estimate fracture stiffness of such fractures, and to evaluate its impact on the grout performance. A conceptual model and a method are presented for estimating fracture stiffness. The method is demonstrated using grouting data from four pre-excavation grouting boreholes at a shallow tunnel (50 m) in Nygård, Sweden, and two post-excavation grouting boreholes at a deep tunnel (450 m) in Äspö HRL, Sweden. The estimated stiffness of intersecting fractures for the boreholes at the shallow Nygård tunnel are low (2–5 GPa/m) and in agreement with literature data from field experiments at other fractured rock sites. Higher stiffness was obtained for the deeper tunnel boreholes at Äspö which is reasonable considering that generally higher rock stresses are expected at greater depths. Our method of identifying and evaluating the properties and impact of deforming fractures might be most applicable when grouting takes place in boreholes adjacent to the tunnel wall, where local stresses might be low and where deforming (opening) fractures may take most of the grout.     

大连地下石油储备库初始渗流场数值反演

 初始渗流场分析是水封式地下石油储备库设计中的重要内容和先决条件,现场压水试验只能提供较准确的各向同性渗透系数,而不能反映各向异性的渗透特征。结合大连地下石油储备库工程,提出一种基于随机节理网络模拟技术反演岩体各向异性渗透特征的方法。首先,采用三维离散元程序3DEC内置的Fish语言,直接生成不同尺寸的三维节理网络模型,通过推导的判别式来统计模型中各组节理的个数及产状信息。其次,利用裂隙介质的渗透张量理论计算不同尺寸的岩体渗透张量,进而确定节理岩体的表征体元(REV)。根据现场压水试验实测资料,修正节理岩体的渗透张量,再利用Matlab软件计算渗透主值及渗透特征向量。最后,考虑渗透系数的空间正交各向异性,采用FLAC3D的Fl_anisotropic的渗流模型反演库区的初始渗流场,为水封式地下石油储备库水幕设计及稳定性分析提供较合理的初始渗流场条件。