Batteries for efficient energy extraction from a water salinity difference

The salinity difference between seawater and river water is a renewable source of enormous entropic energy, but extracting it efficiently as a form of useful energy remains a challenge. Here we demonstrate a device called "mixing entropy battery", which can extract and store it as useful electrochemical energy. The battery, containing a Na(2-x)Mn(5)O(10) nanorod electrode, was shown to extract energy from real seawater and river water and can be applied to a variety of salt waters. We demonstrated energy extraction efficiencies of up to 74%. Considering the flow rate of river water into oceans as the limiting factor, the renewable energy production could potentially reach 2 TW, or ～13% of the current world energy consumption. The mixing entropy battery is simple to fabricate and could contribute significantly to renewable energy in the future.     

Dual‐Graphene Rechargeable Sodium Battery

Sodium (Na) ion batteries are attracting increasing attention for use in various electrical applications. However, the electrochemical behaviors, particularly the working voltages, of Na ion batteries are substantially lower than those of lithium (Li) ion batteries. Worse, the state‐of‐the‐art Na ion battery cannot meet the demand of miniaturized in modern electronics. Here, we demonstrate that electrochemically exfoliated graphene (EG) nanosheets can reversibly store (PF₆⁻) anions, yielding high charging and discharging voltages of 4.7 and 4.3 V vs. Na⁺/Na, respectively. The dual‐graphene rechargeable Na battery fabricated using EG as both the positive and negative electrodes provided the highest operating voltage among all Na ion full cells reported to date, together with a maximum energy density of 250 Wh kg⁻¹. Notably, the dual‐graphene rechargeable Na microbattery exhibited an areal capacity of 35 μAh cm⁻² with stable cycling behavior. This study offers an efficient option for the development of novel rechargeable microbatteries with ultra‐high operating voltage and high energy density.     

Conformal coating of thin polymer electrolyte layer on nanostructured electrode materials for three-dimensional battery applications

Various three-dimensional (3D) battery architectures have been proposed to address effective power delivery in micro/nanoscale devices and for increasing the stored energy per electrode footprint area. One step toward obtaining 3D configurations in batteries is the formation of core-shell nanowires that combines electrode and electrolyte materials. One of the major challenges however in creating such architectures has been the coating of conformal thin nanolayers of polymer electrolytes around nanostructured electrodes. Here we show conformal coatings of 25-30 nm poly(methyl methacralate) electrolyte layers around individual Ni-Sn nanowires used as anodes for Li ion battery. This configuration shows high discharge capacity and excellent capacity retention even at high rates over extended cycling, allowing for scalable increase in areal capacity with electrode thickness. Our results demonstrate conformal nanoscale anode-electrolyte architectures for an efficient Li ion battery system.     

Emerging Prototype Sodium‐Ion Full Cells with Nanostructured Electrode Materials

Due to steadily increasing energy consumption, the demand of renewable energy sources is more urgent than ever. Sodium‐ion batteries (SIBs) have emerged as a cost‐effective alternative because of the earth abundance of Na resources and their competitive electrochemical behaviors. Before practical application, it is essential to establish a bridge between the sodium half‐cell and the commercial battery from a full cell perspective. An overview of the major challenges, most recent advances, and outlooks of non‐aqueous and aqueous sodium‐ion full cells (SIFCs) is presented. Considering the intimate relationship between SIFCs and electrode materials, including structure, composition and mutual matching principle, both the advance of various prototype SIFCs and the electrochemistry development of nanostructured electrode materials are reviewed. It is noted that a series of SIFCs combined with layered oxides and hard carbon are capable of providing a high specific gravimetric energy above 200 Wh kg^–1, and an NaCrO₂//hard carbon full cell is able to deliver a high rate capability over 100 C. To achieve industrialization of SIBs, more systematic work should focus on electrode construction, component compatibility, and battery technologies.     

High‐Capacity Cathode Material with High Voltage for Li‐Ion Batteries

Electrochemical energy storage devices with a high energy density are an important technology in modern society, especially for electric vehicles. The most effective approach to improve the energy density of batteries is to search for high‐capacity electrode materials. According to the concept of energy quality, a high‐voltage battery delivers a highly useful energy, thus providing a new insight to improve energy density. Based on this concept, a novel and successful strategy to increase the energy density and energy quality by increasing the discharge voltage of cathode materials and preserving high capacity is proposed. The proposal is realized in high‐capacity Li‐rich cathode materials. The average discharge voltage is increased from 3.5 to 3.8 V by increasing the nickel content and applying a simple after‐treatment, and the specific energy is improved from 912 to 1033 Wh kg^?1. The current work provides an insightful universal principle for developing, designing, and screening electrode materials for high energy density and energy quality.     

Desalination by distillation and by reverse osmosis — trends towards the future

As the requirement for fresh water increases worldwide, there is a need for more and more plants that are able to treat non-conventional water sources. Sea water has become an important source of fresh water in many arid regions. This feature provides an overview of recent process improvements in sea water desalination using reverse osmosis, multi-stage flash, multi-effect distillation and electrodialysis. Areas discussed include the use of alternative energy sources (wind energy, solar energy and nuclear energy) for reverse osmosis or distillation processes, and the impact of the different desalination process on the environment. Also covered are the implementation of hybrid processes in sea water desalination, and the pretreatment of desalination plants by pressure-driven membrane processes.     

Issue and challenges facing rechargeable thin film lithium batteries

New materials hold the key to fundamental advances in energy conversion and storage, both of which are vital in order to meet the challenge of global warming and the finite nature of fossil fuels. Nanomaterials in particular offer unique properties or combinations of properties as electrodes and electrolytes in a range of energy devices. Technological improvements in rechargeable solid-state batteries are being driven by an ever-increasing demand for portable electronic devices. Lithium batteries are the systems of choice, offering high energy density, flexible, lightweight design and longer lifespan than comparable battery technologies. We present a brief historical review of the development of lithium-based thin film rechargeable batteries highlight ongoing research strategies and discuss the challenges that remain regarding the discovery of nanomaterials as electrolytes and electrodes for lithium batteries also this article describes the possible evolution of lithium technology and evaluates the expected improvements, arising from new materials to cell technology. New active materials under investigation and electrode process improvements may allow an ultimate final energy density of more than 500 Wh/L and 200 Wh/kg, in the next 5–6 years, while maintaining sufficient power densities. A new rechargeable battery technology cannot be foreseen today that surpasses this. This report will provide key performance results for thin film batteries and highlight recent advances in their development.     

Bioinspired,Spine‐Like,Flexible, Rechargeable Lithium‐Ion Batteries with High Energy Density

The rapid development of flexible and wearable electronics proposes the persistent requirements of high‐performance flexible batteries. Much progress has been achieved recently, but how to obtain remarkable flexibility and high energy density simultaneously remains a great challenge. Here, a facile and scalable approach to fabricate spine‐like flexible lithium‐ion batteries is reported. A thick, rigid segment to store energy through winding the electrodes corresponds to the vertebra of animals, while a thin, unwound, and flexible part acts as marrow to interconnect all vertebra‐like stacks together, providing excellent flexibility for the whole battery. As the volume of the rigid electrode part is significantly larger than the flexible interconnection, the energy density of such a flexible battery can be over 85% of that in conventional packing. A nonoptimized flexible cell with an energy density of 242 Wh L^?1 is demonstrated with packaging considered, which is 86.1% of a standard prismatic cell using the same components. The cell also successfully survives a harsh dynamic mechanical load test due to this rational bioinspired design. Mechanical simulation results uncover the underlying mechanism: the maximum strain in the reported design (≈0.08%) is markedly smaller than traditional stacked cells (≈1.1%). This new approach offers great promise for applications in flexible devices.     

A High-Energy Aqueous Manganese–Metal Hydride Hybrid Battery

Aqueous rechargeable batteries show great application prospects in large-scale energy storage because of their reliable safety and low cost. However, a key challenge in developing this battery system lies in its low energy density. Herein, a high-energy manganese–metal hydride (Mn–MH) hybrid battery is reported in which a Mn-based cathode operated by the Mn²⁺/MnO₂ deposition–dissolution reactions, a hydrogen-storage alloy anode that absorbs and desorbs hydrogen in an alkaline solution, and a proton-exchange membrane separator are employed. Given the benefit derived from the high solubility and high specific capacity of the Lewis acidic MnCl₂ in the cathode and the low electrode potential of the MH anode, this aqueous Mn–MH hybrid battery exhibits impressive electrochemical properties with admirable discharge voltage plateaus up to 2.2 V, a competitive energy density of about 240 Wh kg⁻¹ (based on the total mass of the 5.5 m MnCl₂ solution and the hydrogen storage alloy electrode system), good cycling stability over 130 cycles, and a desirable rate capability. This work demonstrates a new strategy for achieving high-performance and low-cost aqueous rechargeable batteries.     

A Lithium‐Organic Primary Battery

Lithium primary batteries are still widely used in military, aerospace, medical, and civilian applications despite the omnipresence of rechargeable Li‐ion batteries. However, these current primary chemistries are exclusively based on inorganic materials with high cost, low energy density or severe safety concerns. Here, a novel lithium‐organic primary battery chemistry that operates through a synergetic reduction of 9,10‐anthraquinone (AQ) and fluoroethylene carbonate (FEC) is reported. In FEC‐presence, the equilibrium between the carbonyl and enol structures is disabled, and replaced by an irreversible process that corresponds to a large capacity along with methylene and inorganic salts (such as LiF, Li₂CO₃) generated as products. This irreversible chemistry of AQ yields a high energy density of 1300 Wh/(kg of AQ) at a stable discharge voltage platform of 2.4 V as well as high rate capability (up to 313 mAh g^?1 at a current density of 1000 mA g^?1), wide temperature range of operation (?40 to 40 °C) and low self‐discharge rate. Combined with the advantages of low toxicity, facile and diverse synthesis methods, and easy accessibility of AQ, Li‐organic primary battery chemistry promises a new battery candidate for applications that requires low cost, high environmental friendliness, and high energy density.     

Exploration of Advanced Electrode Materials for Approaching High‐Performance Nickel‐Based Superbatteries

The surging interest in high performance, low‐cost, and safe energy storage devices has spurred tremendous research efforts in the development of advanced electrode active materials. Herein, the in situ growth of zinc–iron layered double hydroxide (Zn–Fe LDH) on graphene aerogel (GA) substrates through a facile, one‐pot hydrothermal method is reported. The strong interaction and efficient electronic coupling between LDH and graphene substantially improve interfacial charge transport properties of the resulting nanocomposite and provide more available redox active sites for faradaic reactions. An LDH–GA||Ni(OH)₂ device is also fabricated that results in greatly enhanced specific capacity (187 mAh g^?1 at 0.1 A g^?1), outstanding specific energy (147 Wh kg^?1), excellent specific power (16.7 kW kg^?1), along with 88% capacity retention after >10 000 cycles. This approach is further extended to Ni–MH and Ni–Cd batteries to demonstrate the feasibility of compositing with graphene for boosting the energy storage performance of other well‐known Ni‐based batteries. In contrast to conventional Ni‐based batteries, the nearly flat voltage plateau followed by a sloping potential profile of the integrated supercapacitor–battery enables it to be discharged down to 0 V without being damaged. These findings provide new prospects for the design of high‐performance and affordable superbatteries based on earth‐abundant elements.     

固态离子学的新应用

固态离子学是研究固体中快离子输运规律及其应用的科学。它是上世纪70年代发展起来的一门新兴学科, 重点研究具有快离子传导特性的固体电解质材料以及具有离子/电子混合传导特性的电极材料。近年来, 固体离子及混合导电化合物在二次电池、燃料电池、传感器、超级电容器、电色器件、太阳能电池等方面的应用取得了突破性进展, 锂离子电池在各种电子器件中的大规模应用及其新材料体系的发现[1-2]、钠硫电池在大规模储能应用中的领先地位、ZEBRA电池在储能市场上的崛起、固体氧传感器在市场上的稳步发展以及SOFC逐步迈进市场成为固态离子学领域一个个闪光点, 极大地促进了新能源利用、电动汽车开发以及智能电网建设等重大任务的实施, 多领域的科学家和工程技术人员投身到固态离子学的研究中。
　　在众多的新能源技术研究方向中, 高比能量二次电池的研究是当前热点, 也是目前电动汽车开发和智能电网建设公认的瓶颈技术。近几年, 金属电极电池技术的发展使人们对二次电池的未来充满了信心。以金属为负极的二次电池得益于金属电极本身极高的比容量。金属负极主要以碱金属锂、钠和碱土金属镁为代表, 其中锂的重量和体积比容量分别高达3860 mAh/g和2062 mAh/cm3, 远高于目前商业化的碳类负极材料, 成为未来高比能量二次电池的目标。近期, 以金属锂负极活性材料的锂硫电池和锂空气电池的研究在国内外如火如荼, 并不断取得进展。
　　这些电池不仅具有高比能量的特点, 更有价格低廉的绝对优势, 同时也存在尚需改进之处。(1)在锂硫电池方面, 美国Sion Power公司利用PolyPlus公司的锂负极保护膜技术, 有望实现锂硫电池能量密度500 Wh/kg及循环500次的目标[3]。就在近期, 英国Oxis Energy公司报道其研制的200 Wh/kg的锂硫电池预计循环1700~1800次后的容量维持率仍达80%, 该公司计划明年早些时候实现量产[4], 这无疑是对锂硫电池的有力推动。国内有众多研究锂硫电池的机构, 如防化研究院、国防科技大学、北京理工大学、上海硅酸盐研究所、南开大学等均研制了软包装锂硫电池[5]。上海硅酸盐研究所研制的硫电极在2C倍率下循环500次后比容量达到900 mAh/g以上。不过目前看来, 锂硫电池虽然前景良好, 但要在市场上展现其价值尚需开展很多工作。(2)在锂空气电池方面, 针对电解质隔膜、催化剂、载体等核心材料有大量的文献报道, 通过无碳电极设计以及基于LATP锂离子固体电解质的电池设计, 很好地改进了锂空气电池的基本性能[6-8], 但离实际应用还差距甚远, 其电池反应机理方面尚存在争议, 电池技术还没有取得公认的突破。然而, 以锂空气电池为代表的金属空气电池由于其极高的比能量仍是未来电动汽车无法抗拒的追逐目标。
　　金属负极电池的开发在很大程度上取决于固体电解质新体系和新型电极材料的开发, 固态离子学成为高比能量二次电池研究与开发必须掌握的一门重要的科学, 无论是已经获得规模化应用的LiCoO2和LiFePO4等锂离子电池正极材料, Na-β/β″-Al2O3、ZrO2等离子导体, 还是新近突破的Li10GeP2S12和Li7La3Zr2O12[1-2]等锂离子导体新体系, 都为实现锂金属电池新的突破以及锂电池的全固体化、从而从根本上解决锂离子电池的安全性问题奠定了坚实的基础。正因为如此, 锂离子电池的企业界也在大力拓展市场的同时, 不断关注新型二次电池以及固态离子学的进展, 仅以我国两年一届的全国固态离子学学术会议为例, 其规模也从1980年的数十人发展到2012年第16届全国会议的与会代表400余人, 其中近20%代表来自电池与材料企业。可以说, 未来固态离子学将越来越发挥其重要作用, 为新能源技术的发展保驾护航。     

Design of Size-Controlled Sulfur Nanoparticle Cathodes for Lithium-Sulfur Aviation Batteries

Lithium–sulfur (Li–S) battery has been considered as a strong contender for commercial aerospace battery, but the commercialization requires Ah-level pouch cells with both efficient discharge at high rates and ultra-high energy density. In this paper, the application of lithium–sulfur batteries for powering drones by using the cathode of highly dispersed sulfur nanoparticles with well-controlled particle sizes have been realized. The sulfur nanoparticles are prepared by a precipitation method in an eco-friendly and efficient way, and loaded on graphene oxide-cetyltrimethylammonium bromide by molecular grafting to realize a large-scale fabrication of sulfur-based cathodes with superior electrochemical performance. A button cell based on the cathode exhibits an excellent discharge capacity of 62.8 mAh cm⁻² at a high sulfur loading of 60 mg cm⁻² (i.e., 1046.7 mAh g⁻¹). The assembled miniature pouch cell (PCmini) shows a discharge capacity of 130 mAh g⁻¹, while the formed Ah-level pouch cell (PCAh) achieves energy density of 307 Wh kg⁻¹ at 0.3C and 92 Wh kg⁻¹ at 4C. Especially, a four-axis propeller drone powered by the PC has successfully completed a long flight (>3 min) at high altitudes, demonstrating the practical applicability as aviation batteries.     

A High Energy and Power Li‐Ion Capacitor Based on a TiO2 Nanobelt Array Anode and a Graphene Hydrogel Cathode

A novel hybrid Li‐ion capacitor (LIC) with high energy and power densities is constructed by combining an electrochemical double layer capacitor type cathode (graphene hydrogels) with a Li‐ion battery type anode (TiO₂ nanobelt arrays). The high power source is provided by the graphene hydrogel cathode, which has a 3D porous network structure and high electrical conductivity, and the counter anode is made of free‐standing TiO₂ nanobelt arrays (NBA) grown directly on Ti foil without any ancillary materials. Such a subtle designed hybrid Li‐ion capacitor allows rapid electron and ion transport in the non‐aqueous electrolyte. Within a voltage range of 0.0?3.8 V, a high energy of 82 Wh kg^?1 is achieved at a power density of 570 W kg^?1. Even at an 8.4 s charge/discharge rate, an energy density as high as 21 Wh kg^?1 can be retained. These results demonstrate that the TiO₂ NBA//graphene hydrogel LIC exhibits higher energy density than supercapacitors and better power density than Li‐ion batteries, which makes it a promising electrochemical power source.     

7Li MRI of Li batteries reveals location of microstructural lithium

There is an ever-increasing need for advanced batteries for portable electronics, to power electric vehicles and to facilitate the distribution and storage of energy derived from renewable energy sources. The increasing demands on batteries and other electrochemical devices have spurred research into the development of new electrode materials that could lead to better performance and lower cost (increased capacity, stability and cycle life, and safety). These developments have, in turn, given rise to a vigorous search for the development of robust and reliable diagnostic tools to monitor and analyse battery performance, where possible, in situ. Yet, a proven, convenient and non-invasive technology, with an ability to image in three dimensions the chemical changes that occur inside a full battery as it cycles, has yet to emerge. Here we demonstrate techniques based on magnetic resonance imaging, which enable a completely non-invasive visualization and characterization of the changes that occur on battery electrodes and in the electrolyte. The current application focuses on lithium-metal batteries and the observation of electrode microstructure build-up as a result of charging. The methods developed here will be highly valuable in the quest for enhanced battery performance and in the evaluation of other electrochemical devices.     

Ultrathin Hierarchical Porous Carbon Nanosheets for High‐Performance Supercapacitors and Redox Electrolyte Energy Storage

The design of advanced high‐energy‐density supercapacitors requires the design of unique materials that combine hierarchical nanoporous structures with high surface area to facilitate ion transport and excellent electrolyte permeability. Here, shape‐controlled 2D nanoporous carbon sheets (NPSs) with graphitic wall structure through the pyrolysis of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are developed. As a proof‐of‐concept application, the obtained NPSs are used as the electrode material for a supercapacitor. The carbon‐sheet‐based symmetric cell shows an ultrahigh Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET)‐area‐normalized capacitance of 21.4 µF cm^?2 (233 F g^?1), exceeding other carbon‐based supercapacitors. The addition of potassium iodide as redox‐active species in a sulfuric acid (supporting electrolyte) leads to the ground‐breaking enhancement in the energy density up to 90 Wh kg^?1, which is higher than commercial aqueous rechargeable batteries, maintaining its superior power density. Thus, the new material provides a double profits strategy such as battery‐level energy and capacitor‐level power density.     

Polarity‐Switchable Symmetric Graphite Batteries with High Energy and High Power Densities

Multifunctional batteries with enhanced safety performance have received considerable attention for their applications at extreme conditions. However, few batteries can endure a mix‐up of battery polarity during charging, a common wrong operation of rechargeable batteries. Herein, a polarity‐switchable battery based on the switchable intercalation feature of graphite is demonstrated. The unique redox‐amphoteric intercalation behavior of graphite allows a reversible switching of graphite between anode and cathode, thus enabling polarity‐switchable symmetric graphite batteries. The large potential gap between anion and cation intercalation delivers a high midpoint device voltage (≈average voltage) of ≈4.5 V. Further, both the graphite anode and cathode are kinetically activated during the polarity switching. Consequently, polarity‐switchable symmetric graphite batteries exhibit a remarkable cycling stability (96% capacity retention after 500 cycles), a high power density of 8.66 kW kg^?1, and a high energy density of 227 Wh kg^?1 (calculated based on the total weight of active materials in both anode and cathode), which are superior to other symmetric batteries and recently reported dual‐graphite or dual‐carbon batteries. This work will inspire the development of new multifunctional energy‐storage devices based on novel materials and electrolyte systems.     

Experimental visualization of lithium diffusion in LixFePO4

Chemical energy storage using batteries will become increasingly important for future environmentally friendly ('green') societies. The lithium-ion battery is the most advanced energy storage system, but its application has been limited to portable electronics devices owing to cost and safety issues. State-of-the-art LiFePO4 technology as a new cathode material with surprisingly high charge-discharge rate capability has opened the door for large-scale application of lithium-ion batteries such as in plug-in hybrid vehicles. The scientific community has raised the important question of why a facile redox reaction is possible in the insulating material. Geometric information on lithium diffusion is essential to understand the facile electrode reaction of LixFePO4 (0相似文献   

Hierarchically porous graphene as a lithium-air battery electrode

The lithium-air battery is one of the most promising technologies among various electrochemical energy storage systems. We demonstrate that a novel air electrode consisting of an unusual hierarchical arrangement of functionalized graphene sheets (with no catalyst) delivers an exceptionally high capacity of 15000 mAh/g in lithium-O(2) batteries which is the highest value ever reported in this field. This excellent performance is attributed to the unique bimodal porous structure of the electrode which consists of microporous channels facilitating rapid O(2) diffusion while the highly connected nanoscale pores provide a high density of reactive sites for Li-O(2) reactions. Further, we show that the defects and functional groups on graphene favor the formation of isolated nanosized Li(2)O(2) particles and help prevent air blocking in the air electrode. The hierarchically ordered porous structure in bulk graphene enables its practical applications by promoting accessibility to most graphene sheets in this structure.     

An efficient macroporous catalytic cathode for Li-S battery

正Beyond a doubt,Li ion battery (LIB) has reshaped our livesfundamentally since its advent in 1990s. After 30 years' optimization,the energy density of LIBs based on intercalation chemistries has approached the limit of～300 Wh/kg. Any further improvement of energy density calls for new battery chemistries,among which Li-S batteries are regarded as one of the most promising energy storage alternatives because of the high theoretical specific energy (2 600 Wh/kg) and low cost of the sulfur since their renaissance in 2009[1].