荷兰的社会住宅:明确的传统与未知的将来

在荷兰,社会(公有)出租的住房的比重占到了35%--是欧盟范围内这一比例最高的国家.这一部门是在1901年住房法确立的公共框架下由独立经营的住房协会所主导的.本文阐述了住房协会在1995年"总收益与收支平衡实施办法"执行前后的历史渊源和发展变化.自从这一办法实施以来,住房协会不再从政府接受实物补贴.但是,它们却变得愈加富有,这一点将会影响住房协会的社会形象.由于结合了社会与市场行为,在坚实的公共框架下运作,并经营高品质多样化的住宅,荷兰的社会住宅可为其他欧盟国家、俄罗斯和中国提供借鉴.     

政府监管、非营利机构运营的荷兰社会住房发展模式

荷兰的社会住房以覆盖面广、居住品质高等特点著称。在百余年的长期发展中,荷兰形成了在政府授权和监管下,由独立非营利机构"住房协会"以市场化方式提供和管理社会住房的发展模式。本文聚焦于荷兰社会住房发展中政府和住房协会的不同角色、住房协会的管理与运营框架,以及对住房协会社会责任的约束和监督机制,以期为我国保障性住房的发展与管理提供有益的经验借鉴与启示。     

欧洲与法国社会住房政策的主要问题

现在人们普遍认为,欧盟的27个国家中存在三种主要的社会住房政策模式:"剩余"模式(residual model),主要存在于南欧及前东欧的共产主义国家,其主要特征是社会住房仅供给那些最贫穷的阶层."一般"模式(generalist model),这一模式下,虽然受到一种或多种形式的收入和租金上额的限制,但社会住房将提供给更广大的社会群体,这种模式主要存在于德国、英国、法国和比利时."普惠"模式(universal model),社会住房更多的以一种不带任何社会目标的"公共住房"的形式出现,其目的在于形成强大的社会租赁部门,为所有人提供大量的可支付的租赁住房.瑞典、丹麦和荷兰仍在一定程度上执行这一模式.第一部分介绍这三大模式,以及当前欧盟众多国家不同的社会住房情况.第二部分揭示了欧洲住房政策的普遍趋势以及为何走向"普惠"模式的废除,许多实行"一般"模式的国家如何向"剩余"模式靠拢及其原因.最后一部分重点是法国的情况,揭示2000年代的住房危机以及国家住房政策的主要方向是怎样向社会住房的"剩余"模式靠拢.最后,分析了这一过程对城市问题的主要影响,如社会融合和房地产的贬值.     

欧洲住房金融改革对中国的借鉴意义

自从1960与1970年代以来,更多的欧洲国家放松了它们的住宅政策。我们注意到从公共融资向私人融资的转变、从社会住宅向商业住宅的转变、从住房建设补贴向住房人头补贴的转变、从管制租金向市值租金的转变、以及从租赁房向自有房的转变。大部分这些转变都可以统称为＂私有化＂以及＂自由化＂这些定义不明的词语。然而,欧盟大部分国家的住宅金融体系仍然复杂而不合理,需要更多的住宅金融改革。我们将详述一种住宅金融改革的核心内容,包括如下几点：住房建设补贴、租户的住房人头补贴、自有房的税收优惠、房屋租赁政策、以及住宅联盟的角色。通过这种分析,我们勾画出欧盟国家住宅金融深入改革的轮廓。在不久的将来,中国也会考虑相似的住宅金融改革。     

旅店住宅 高质量经适房的新尝试

旅店住宅(Hallway House)是一个非常极端的住宅项目,构思出自荷兰建筑学会与中国房地产开发商万科发起的"联姻"建筑设计活动框架。作为中国与荷兰在社会保障性住房领域的合作项目,     

欧洲住房金融改革对中国的借鉴意义

自从1960与1970年代以来,更多的欧洲国家放松了它们的住宅政策.我们注意到从公共融资向私人融资的转变、从社会住宅向商业住宅的转变、从住房建设补贴向住房人头补贴的转变、从管制租金向市值租金的转变、以及从租赁房向自有房的转变.大部分这些转变都可以统称为"私有化"以及"自由化"这些定义不明的词语.然而,欧盟大部分国家的住宅金融体系仍然复杂而不合理,需要更多的住宅金融改革.我们将详述一种住宅金融改革的核心内容,包括如下几点:住房建设补贴、租户的住房人头补贴、自有房的税收优惠、房屋租赁政策.以及住宅联盟的角色.通过这种分析,我们勾画出欧盟国家住宅金融深入改革的轮廓.在不久的将来,中国也会考虑相似的住宅金融改革.     

荷兰住房协会——社会住房建设和管理的非政府模式

荷兰社会住房比例在全欧洲最高,其社会住房主要由住房协会建设和管理.文章追溯了住房协会的发展历程以及对荷兰政府不同住房政策的反应,总结了住房协会的双重二元特征:私人机构但是却承担了公共责任,是资金来源于政府的NGO组织.在1990年代资金独立之后,公共使命和从事市场活动成为了住房协会新的特征.文章还分析了住房协会在与政府、协会之间以及居民的关系中所扮演的的不同角色,反映了其各项职能.此外,对荷兰住房协会管理的模式进行了总结和反思,以期对我国的保障性住房建设提供借鉴和思考.     

欧洲与法国社会住房政策的主要问题

现在人们普遍认为,欧盟的27个国家中存在三种主要的社会住房政策模式：“剩余”模式（residual model）,主要存在于南欧及前东欧的共产主义国家,其主要特征是社会住房仅供给那些最贫穷的阶层。“一般”模式（generalist model）,这一模式下,虽然受到一种或多种形式的收入和租金上额的限制,但社会住房将提供给更广大的社会群体,这种模式主要存在于德国、英国、法国和比利时。“普惠”模式（universal model）,社会住房更多的以一种不带任何社会目标的“公共住房”的形式出现,其目的在于形成强大的社会租赁部门,为所有人提供大量的可支付的租赁住房。瑞典、丹麦和荷兰仍在一定程度上执行这一模式。第一部分介绍这三大模式,以及当前欧盟众多国家不同的社会住房情况。第二部分揭示了欧洲住房政策的普遍趋势以及为何走向“普惠”模式的废除,许多实行“一般”模式的国家如何向“剩余”模式靠拢及其原因。最后一部分重点是法国的情况,揭示2000年代的住房危机以及国家住房政策的主要方向是怎样向社会住房的“剩余”模式靠拢。最后,分析了这一过程对城市问题的主要影响,如社会融合和房地产的贬值。     

寻求社会公正与融合的可持续途径:荷兰社会住宅的发展与现状

作为世界上住房保障制度最为完善的国家之一,荷兰自20世纪初期以来长期重视社会住宅,即公有出租的保障性住房的规划和建设,将其作为解决城市住房问题、促进社会公正的主要方式,并根据社会经济背景的变化对其发展政策和策略进行合理的调整.与此同时,荷兰也已将社会住宅的规划建设作为解决社会问题,特别是克服不同收入阶层与种族间的居住空间隔离问题,促进社会融合的重要手段之一.本文将结合政策与实例分析对荷兰社会住宅发展进行具体探讨,以期对我国目前的保障性住房规划建设提供借鉴.     

荷兰社会住房政策体系对公共租赁住房建设的启示

自20世纪初以来,荷兰对于社会住房建设积累了丰富的实践经验。其中,荷兰独特的政策与社会住房体系在一百多年内的演变,以及政府与社会住房机构在不同历史阶段所扮演的角色差异是本文讨论的主要内容。总体来看,随着社会住房机构的逐渐独立,政府的决定权在不断下放,社会住房机构在良好的社会住房管理体制和积极的房地产发展下,从依靠政府贷款走向了经济独立的发展模式,从而成为荷兰社会住房建设的主体。此外,租金管制与住房补贴制度也较大地推动了社会住房的发展。随着中国保障性住房建设进程的加快,公共租赁住房将在保障房建设中扮演越来越重要的角色,但当前大城市公共租赁住房的建设普遍面临着土地、融资和管理等诸多难题。荷兰社会住房的建设经验可以为中国公租房建设在机构设置和政策制定方面提供一定的借鉴。     

Regeneration of Dutch post-war urban districts: the role of housing associations

In the Netherlands the regeneration of post-war urban districts is closely intertwined with the role of housing associations. This is hardly surprising, given that the housing associations have such a large share of the market (usually over 50%; sometimes nearly 100%) in many early post-war urban districts. This has caused a growing concentration of low-income households in those urban areas and a selective migration by middle- and high-income households from the city to the suburb. Official government policy on housing and urban renewal is directed at a redifferentiation of the urban housing stock. Specifically, the policy promotes more owner-occupation, larger and higher-quality homes, and a greater percentage of homes with a garden. This implies the demolition of social housing estates and selling social housing. The position of housing associations in the regeneration of Dutch post-war urban districts is somewhat enigmatic. On the one hand, national government is expecting them to take initiative and invest in urban renewal; on the other, government is urging them to cut down their market share. How are housing associations coping with this paradoxical challenge? And what are the current national policies about the position of housing associations? Aedes (the umbrella organisation of Dutch housing associations) and the Dutch Ministry of Housing have agreed upon the so-called great transition of housing associations. Here we explain and critique this great transition, which will hamper the current regeneration of Dutch urban districts. As an alternative we present the new transition.     

Dutch Housing Associations: Current Developments and Debates

In the Netherlands, social housing accounts for 37 per cent of the total stock, and as much as 75 per cent of the total rented stock. For observers from outside the Netherlands this seems an anachronism. The dominant institution within the Dutch social rented sector is the housing association: a private organisation, functioning within the public framework of the Housing Act. This paper puts forward an explanation of why the Netherlands' social housing sector is so large. An overview is provided of the social housing institutions at sector level, their effectiveness is evaluated, and questions on the efficiency of the housing associations are posed. Several variants for the future status of housing associations are assessed and the political choice made in 2000 by the Netherlands government is elucidated. Finally, there is a discussion about the recent proposals encouraging housing associations to opt out of the public system and some recommendations are formulated for the Dutch social housing sector. It is possible that these could provide a source of inspiration for housing politicians elsewhere in Europe.     

The future of Dutch housing associations

This paper discusses the future of the social rented sector in the Netherlands. There are several reasons why the position of this sector is currently under close scrutiny. Whereas attention to social rented housing had lapsed by the start of this century, the growing housing shortage and stagnation in the restructuring of older urban areas brought this sector back into the political spotlight. Also the European Commission is having a major impact on the future position of the sector. The Commission has ordered the Dutch Government to establish a level playing field by abolishing the privileges of the housing associations. Against this background, this paper discusses the possible tasks and proper functioning of the Dutch housing associations.     

Portfolio Management in the Social Rented Sector: Valuation,Risk Analysis and Strategy Development

The financial aspects of social housing management are becoming more important for housing associations in Western Europe, due to changes in their economic and institutional context. As part of a trend towards the privatisation and decentralisation of public services, housing associations are becoming more self-reliant. Government financial support is decreasing and parts of the housing market are changing in response to low demand. To ensure that housing associations run an economic, efficient and financially sound business, knowledge of the financial performance of their stock is becoming more important for their investment policy. In the Netherlands, these general changes in housing policy, management and market have been a prominent feature of the last decade, and have resulted in a variety of responses under the general heading of asset and portfolio management. This paper describes methods for valuation, risk analysis and portfolio management for housing associations. The paper sets out the context within which Dutch housing associations operate. Existing methods for valuation and risk analysis are evaluated for their applicability to social landlords. These methods are placed within the business planning process to show how the methods can be used to inform asset management strategy. Finally the paper reflects on the implications for practice in social housing management.     

A Practice Based Methodology for Comparing Social Objectives in Housing Associations

For housing associations, social objectives and financial restrictions will often be competing. Therefore, an important question is how a housing association should allocate its resources in order to achieve its goals. Traditionally, housing associations set financial targets and discuss social aspects, but they fail to set concrete targets for their social objectives which can be measured and evaluated properly. The problem is that social objectives are often difficult to quantify and compare. This paper introduces a method that makes it possible to compare social objectives and to actively involve social objectives in the decision-making process of housing associations. In this way, the decision-making process becomes more transparent and housing associations can optimise their social performance given the available capital.     

The future of Flemish social housing

Housing policy in Belgium and Flanders is directed mainly towards encouraging home ownership. Social housing in Flanders covers a share of 5.6% of the housing stock. This social rental sector is characterized as a safety net by some housing researchers and as a general model by others. During the 1990s and the first half of this decade social housing in Flanders became under discussion. The image of social housing that dominated then was one of increasing problems with tenants and neighbourhoods. Raising the income limits to get a better social mix was advocated by the sector and afterwards by policy as one of the solutions for these problems, meanwhile also improving the revenues of the housing associations. The political discourse however was very little supported by scientific knowledge. This contribution aims at clarifying the position of the Flemish social housing by describing the historical and regulatory context and presenting the results of the Housing Survey 2005. It dispels the misunderstanding that Flemish social housing is a residual model and explores different future models. One of the conclusions is that solving problems of the social rental sector may not occur at the cost of those who need affordable housing most.

Devolution and Housing Associations in Great Britain: Enhancing Organisational Accountability?

This paper evaluates, through a fourfold framework, the extent to which devolution in Great Britain has enhanced the organisational accountability of housing associations three years after the creation of the Scottish Parliament and National Assembly for Wales. The evaluation framework examines the goals set for social housing organisations, the processes by which they are set, and the ways in which goals are monitored and enforced. The assessment reveals that, whilst it would be a mistake to suggest that housing policies and administrative frameworks have been traditionally monolithic across Britain, there is evidence that they are now diverging further, and that policy priorities for housing associations are coming to reflect local circumstances and locally-determined decisions to a greater extent than hitherto. The utility of the evaluation framework is thus demonstrated. It is concluded that the organisational accountability of housing associations has been enhanced alongside, and, to some extent, as a result of, devolution.     

The Uneven Development of 'Social Rented Housing': Explaining the Historically Marginal Position of Housing Associations in Britain

The first part of this paper is concerned with rethinking the notion of social rented housing, arguing that it is appropriate to refer to a dual social rented sector, both now and in the past, and to set municipal and non-municipal models of provision alongside the dominant consumption side models of mass and residual social housing. The idea of uneven development of social rented housing in Britain refers to the numerical dominance of local authority provision, and the insignificant quantitative contribution of housing associations and their predecessors until the last years of the 20th century. The second part of the paper poses the question of why the voluntary sector failed to thrive after 1918, and examines some historical evidence from four key periods up to the early 1960s. It is argued that the poor performance of these organisations immediately after 1918 led to them failing to overcome local authority opposition and civil service scepticism in the 1930s.     

Preventing Asthma through Housing Interventions: How Supportive is the US Policy Environment?

This paper investigates whether the policy environment in the United States is supportive of addressing the asthma epidemic through housing plans and policies. Asthma is increasing at an alarming rate worldwide and is linked to allergens in the housing environment such as ground-level ozone, excessive moisture and dust, rodents and pests, and environmental tobacco smoke. The study finds basic laws and regulations are in place regulating outdoor air quality and calling for the maintenance of public and rental housing in good condition, but there is still a need for specific standards to be adopted into law, for better enforcement of existing laws, and for increased funding. Because asthma prevention programs are relatively new, the paper reviews the US experience with lead-based paint hazard control programs to identify the components of effective strategies. These include explicit health objectives in housing plans and policies, promotion by both health and housing officials, advocacy by citizens' groups and tenants' associations, adequate funding for implementation, and focus on multiple health outcomes.     

Long-Run Trends in Victorian Housing Affordability and First Transition into Homeownership

The recent house price cycle has highlighted concerns about housing affordability. But is the recent deterioration in housing affordability a short-term problem, or is it a continuation of long-term trends? We take advantage of customised data tables from the Australian Bureau of Statistics Census of Population and Housing to address this question. We focus on the state of Victoria, Australia, by comparing housing affordability and tenure share trends from 1981 to 2001, a period which encompasses two house price booms. Specifically, we look at households by income quintiles and age group in Victoria. We find that housing affordability has deteriorated, particularly for those in the lowest two income quintiles. Most importantly, deterioration is not restricted to one inter-census period. It is a trend that is evident through most inter-census periods from 1981 to 2001. Furthermore, we find that among younger households, those under 35 years of age, the share of home purchasers and outright owners is in long-run decline. The long-run trends in housing affordability pose a serious threat to the homeownership aspirations of younger Victorians.