Improving the effectiveness of English vocabulary review by integrating ARCS with mobile game‐based learning

Memorizing English vocabulary is often considered uninteresting, and a lack of motivation exists during learning activities. Moreover, most vocabulary practice systems automatically select words from articles and do not provide integrated model methods for students. Therefore, this study constructed a mobile game‐based English vocabulary practice system, which imitates the popular block elimination game and combines test items of article, difficulty, and teacher model in accordance with curriculum objectives and demands. The participants were first‐year students and classified into traditional group (Group T) and game‐based group (Group G), and learning effectiveness and motivation were analysed in this study. According to statistical analysis results, students who used the game‐based vocabulary practice system, which could captivate their attention and interest, had higher learning effectiveness and provided positive feedback of learning motivation. Furthermore, English teachers could select teaching materials that are consistent with the features, knowledge, and cultural background of learners to improve the relevance dimension of learning motivation.     

From integrative to game‐based integrative peer response: high ability versus low ability

Peer response is useful to improve student writing. However, traditional peer response takes a single mode, which has some problems, such as effort for preparation of documents or ambiguous feedback. To address these problems, this study presents two peer response approaches, that is, an integrative approach and a game‐based integrative approach. Additionally, whether students with these two peer response approaches and those with a non‐peer response approach performed differently is examined in this study, where students' ability levels were also considered. The findings suggest that students with the peer response generally demonstrated better writing performance than those without the peer response. Furthermore, students with the game‐based integrative approach showed better writing quality than those with the integrative approach. Moreover, the former was more helpful in giving direct feedback on surface features and criticism than the latter. However, the usefulness of peer response approaches was associated with ability levels. More specifically, the integrative approach was beneficial for the high‐ability students to improve on their written expression in the aspect of length of composition, while the game‐based integrative approach was advantageous to enhance the low‐ability students' writing quality in the aspect of clear paragraph.     

The effects of participation,performance, and interest in a game‐based writing environment

We have observed that many computer‐supported writing environments based on pedagogical strategies have only been designed to incorporate the cognitive aspects, but motivational aspects should also be included. Hence, we theorize that integrating game‐based learning into the writing environment may be a practical approach that can facilitate student participation, not only helping students learn how to write, but also sustaining their willingness to write. In this study, we investigate the effects of the game‐based writing environment on improving students' participation, performance, and interest in writing. An experiment was conducted to compare the effectiveness of 2 approaches to writing in language arts at an elementary school. Two hundred forty‐five third grade students participated in the experiment over a period of 1 year. One hundred thirty‐nine students were assigned to an experimental group and learned with a game‐based writing environment, and 106 students were in the contrast group and learned with an online writing environment. The empirical results show that the game‐based writing environment can effectively promote students' writing participation, writing performance, interest in writing, as well as their perceptions of the use of educational self‐management games. Some implications of the experimental results are also discussed.     

Effects of game‐based learning on students' mathematics achievement: A meta‐analysis

This meta‐analysis investigated the effects of learning video games on mathematics achievement of PreK‐12th‐grade students compared with traditional classroom instructional methods. Results from the 24 collected studies showed heterogeneity among effect sizes, both in magnitude and direction. Using a random effects model, a small but marginally significant overall effect ( ) suggested that mathematics video games contributed to higher learning gains as compared with traditional instructional methods. In addition, moderator analyses were mixed in terms of statistical significance and explored effect‐size heterogeneity across effects using grade level, instrument type, length of game‐based intervention, country, publication type, and study year characteristics. Overall findings indicate that video games are a slightly effective instructional strategy for teaching mathematics across PreK‐12th‐grade levels.     

The effects of cognitive capacity and gaming expertise on attention and comprehension

Educational video games can impose high cognitive demands on its users. Two studies were conducted to examine the cognitive process involved in playing an educational digital game. Study 1 examined the effects of users' working memory capacity and gaming expertise on attention and comprehension of the educational messages. The results showed that gaming experts seem to benefit more from having a higher working memory capacity when processing information from the game. However, gaming experts' available working memory did not predict better comprehension. Instead, non‐experts' available working memory predicted better comprehension. Study 2 further examined whether these results were caused by insufficient working memory allocation or different attention focus between gaming experts and non‐experts. The findings suggest that gaming experts approach the game differently from non‐experts, focusing on familiar features and overlooking unfamiliar (educational) information.     

Micro‐adaptivity: protecting immersion in didactically adaptive digital educational games

The idea of utilizing the rich potential of today's computer games for educational purposes excites educators, scientists and technicians. Despite the significant hype over digital game‐based learning, the genre is currently at an early stage. One of the most significant challenges for research and development in this area is establishing intelligent mechanisms to support and guide the learner, and to realize a subtle balance between learning and gaming, and between challenge and ability on an individual basis. In contrast to traditional approaches of adaptive and intelligent tutoring, the key advantage of games is their immersive and motivational potential. Because of this, the psycho‐pedagogical and didactic measures must not compromise gaming experience, immersion and flow. In the present paper, we introduce the concept of micro‐adaptivity, an approach that enables an educational game to intelligently monitor and interpret the learner's behaviour in the game's virtual world in a non‐invasive manner. On this basis, micro‐adaptivity enables interventions, support, guidance or feedback in a meaningful, personalized way that is embedded in the game's flow. The presented approach was developed in the context of the European Enhanced Learning Experience and Knowledge TRAnsfer project. This project also realized a prototype game, demonstrating the capabilities, strengths and weaknesses of micro‐adaptivity.     

The impact of team‐based learning on students with different self‐regulated learning abilities

Team‐based learning (TBL) stresses applying knowledge rather than absorbing knowledge in class; studies have investigated the use of TBL and its merits in different teaching courses (e.g., medical science and business). TBL is most effective when students learn autonomously before class. However, the ability of autonomous learning is highly associated with the ability of self‐regulated learning (SRL); most importantly, not every student possesses good (or high) SRL ability. Nevertheless, few studies have compared the effectiveness of TBL in students with different SRL abilities. To address this issue, this study analyzed approximately 90 students, whose course teaching involves office application software (Microsoft Excel). This study also developed an online TBL system (called Online TBL) to facilitate performing TBL and to collect the learning behaviours of students with different (high or low) SRL abilities on each TBL stage. The analytical results show that compared with the low‐SRL students, the high‐SRL students were more prepared for class because they spent more reviewing material and had better scores on personal uploaded Excel and Individual Readiness Assurance Test. From the feedback of the peer evaluation, the results also show that the high‐SRL students received more credits than the low‐SRL students did. The questionnaire survey revealed that both low‐SRL and high‐SRL students had a favourable impression of TBL. Further discussion is given to explain the above results.     

Supervised machine learning in multimodal learning analytics for estimating success in project‐based learning

Multimodal learning analytics provides researchers new tools and techniques to capture different types of data from complex learning activities in dynamic learning environments. This paper investigates the use of diverse sensors, including computer vision, user‐generated content, and data from the learning objects (physical computing components), to record high‐fidelity synchronised multimodal recordings of small groups of learners interacting. We processed and extracted different aspects of the students' interactions to answer the following question: Which features of student group work are good predictors of team success in open‐ended tasks with physical computing? To answer this question, we have explored different supervised machine learning approaches (traditional and deep learning techniques) to analyse the data coming from multiple sources. The results illustrate that state‐of‐the‐art computational techniques can be used to generate insights into the "black box" of learning in students' project‐based activities. The features identified from the analysis show that distance between learners' hands and faces is a strong predictor of students' artefact quality, which can indicate the value of student collaboration. Our research shows that new and promising approaches such as neural networks, and more traditional regression approaches can both be used to classify multimodal learning analytics data, and both have advantages and disadvantages depending on the research questions and contexts being investigated. The work presented here is a significant contribution towards developing techniques to automatically identify the key aspects of students success in project‐based learning environments, and to ultimately help teachers provide appropriate and timely support to students in these fundamental aspects.     

Learning loops – interactions between guided reflection and experience‐based learning in a serious game activity

In a study on experience‐based learning in serious games, 45 players were tested for topic comprehension by a questionnaire administered before and after playing the single‐player serious game Peacemaker (Impact Games 2007). Players were divided into two activity conditions: 20 played a 1‐h game with a 3‐min half‐time break to complete an affect self‐report form while 25 also participated in a 20‐min reflective group discussion during their half‐time break. During the discussion, they were asked by an experimenter to reflect on a set of topics related to the game. We present the analysis of the questionnaires, which illustrates that contrary to our expectations the reflection period had a negative effect on the learning of the players as judged by their performance on closed‐form questions at levels 1–5 (out of 6) on the Bloom taxonomy of learning outcomes. The questionnaire also included a few open questions which gave the players a possibility to display deep (level 6) learning. The players did not differ significantly between conditions regarding the questions measuring deep learning.     

Effects of an intelligent web‐based English instruction system on students' academic performance

This research conducted quasi‐experiments in four middle schools to evaluate the long‐term effects of an intelligent web‐based English instruction system, Computer Simulation in Educational Communication (CSIEC), on students' academic attainment. The analysis of regular examination scores and vocabulary test validates the positive impact of CSIEC, and in most cases, the positive impact is statistically significant. The reliability is ensured by the spectrum of the students from Grade 1 to Grade 3 in three junior high schools and from Grade 1 to Grade 2 in one senior high school, and of the teachers with or without blended learning experience, as well as by the various school locations from rural to urban areas in four provinces of China. The learning content‐oriented design and the instant feedback feature of the web‐based system, as well as its regular integration into the English class, contributed to its reliable positive effect on students' learning performance in ordinary examinations. This is the research's implication for instructional design. The conclusion of this paper could serve as a reference to the technical feasibility and pedagogical benefit of regular usage of appropriate Computer Assisted Learning system in the mainstream subject of middle schools. The multiple quasi‐experiments in divergent school settings to ensure the results' reliability distinguish this research from previous ones that just implemented one single experiment in one school.     

Avoiding game‐tree pathology in 2‐player adversarial search

Adversarial search, or game‐tree search, is a technique for analyzing an adversarial game to determine what moves a player should make in order to win a game. Until recently, lookahead pathology (in which deeper game‐tree search results in worse play) has been thought to be quite rare. We provide an analysis that shows that every game should have some sections that are locally pathological, assuming that both players can potentially win the game. We also modify the minimax algorithm to recognize local pathologies in arbitrary games and cut off search accordingly (shallower search is more effective than deeper search when local pathologies occur). We show experimentally that our modified search procedure avoids local pathologies and consequently provides improved performance, in terms of decision accuracy, when compared with the minimax algorithm. In addition, we provide an experimental evaluation on the African game of Kalah, which shows the improved performances of our suggested error‐minimizing minimax algorithm when there is a large degree of pathology.     

Audial engagement: Effects of game sound on learner engagement in digital game-based learning environments

Learner engagement has been considered to be an important factor for successful learning in multimedia learning environments, which include digital game-based learning (DGBL). Nonetheless, there have been few empirical studies and very little consensus on what elements critically affect learners’ engagement in a DGBL environment. Audial and visual stimuli are often the only means to communicate learning materials to the learners because of the virtual environment found in DGBLs. This means that learners’ engagement in DGBL will need to occur via audial or visual stimuli – sans other specialty devices to immerse players in virtual reality (such as Occulus Rifts and Virtusphere). Yet, very few researchers have directly measured the effect of sensory stimuli on learners’ engagement during (game-based) learning. This study examined the effects of non-player characters’ (NPC) voiceovers on play-learners’ engagement in DGBL through a role-playing game (RPG). A randomized control-group post-test only design was used to collect data from 74 participants. Data analysis revealed that the participants who played the game with voiceovers were more engaged than participants who played without voiceovers. The results of this study will guide practitioners to identify more effective ways of adopting, developing, and modifying digital games for educational purposes.     

Mobile‐Based micro‐Learning and Assessment: Impact on learning performance and motivation of high school students

Mobile‐based micro‐learning has gained a lot of attention lately, especially for work‐based and corporate training. It combines features of mobile learning and micro‐learning to deliver small learning units and short‐term learning activities. The current study uses the lens of the Self‐Determination Theory of motivation and proposes a series of Mobile‐Based micro‐Learning and Assessment (MBmLA) homework activities to improve high school students' motivation and learning performance in science. An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed approach. One hundred and eight students of a senior‐level high school in Europe were randomly assigned into either a control condition (conventional paper‐based homework approach) or an experimental (MBmLA approach) condition. The study carried out for a period of 5 weeks. From the experimental results, it was found that, in comparison to the conventional paper‐based approach, the proposed MBmLA approach enhanced students' basic psychological needs of self‐perceived autonomy, competence, and relatedness and improved students' exam performance in terms of factual knowledge. Moreover, students self‐reported greater learning satisfaction with the mobile‐based microassessment and micro‐learning homework tasks. Implications on educational practices as well as future research are discussed.     

Supporting self‐regulated learning in computer‐based learning environments: systematic review of effects of scaffolding in the domain of science education

Despite the widespread assumption that students require scaffolding support for self‐regulated learning (SRL) processes in computer‐based learning environments (CBLEs), there is little clarity as to which types of scaffolds are most effective. This study offers a literature review covering the various scaffolds that support SRL processes in the domain of science education. Effective scaffolds are categorized and discussed according to the different areas and phases of SRL. The results reveal that most studies on scaffolding processes focus on cognition, whereas few focus on the non‐cognitive areas of SRL. In the field of cognition, prompts appear to be the most effective scaffolds, especially for processes during the control phase. This review also shows that studies have paid little attention to scaffold designs, learner characteristics, or various task characteristics, despite the fact that these variables have been found to have a significant influence. We conclude with the implications of our results on future design and research in the field of SRL using CBLEs.     

The added value of a gaming context and intelligent adaptation for a mobile learning application for vocabulary learning

Two groups participated in a study on the added value of a gaming context and intelligent adaptation for a mobile learning application. The control group worked at home for a fortnight with the original Mobile English Learning application (MEL-original) developed in a previous project. The experimental group worked at home for a fortnight with MEL-enhanced, the original application embedded in an adventure game and augmented with intelligent adaptation. Two learning themes were used: Zoo animals and Neighbourhood. Both groups attended lessons at school on Zoo Animals and Neighbourhood during the same periods they were allowed to work with the application at home. A pre- and post-test were conducted to establish the initial vocabulary knowledge and the knowledge acquired during the learning phase. The main results indicated that the students in the experimental condition (MEL-enhanced) outperformed the children from the control group (MEL-original), although the former group did not spend more time with the learning material than the latter, and that the students in the experimental group valued MEL-enhanced more than the children from the control group valued MEL-original.     

Social skills as predictors of communication,performance and quality of collaboration in project‐based learning

The assumption that social skills are necessary ingredients of collaborative learning is well established but rarely empirically tested. In addition, most theories on collaborative learning focus on social skills only at the personal level, while the social skill configurations within a learning group might be of equal importance. Using the integrative framework, this study investigates which social skills at the personal level and at the group level are predictive of task‐related e‐mail communication, satisfaction with performance and perceived quality of collaboration. Data collection took place in a technology‐enhanced long‐term project‐based learning setting for pre‐service teachers. For data collection, two questionnaires were used, one at the beginning and one at the end of the learning cycle which lasted 3 months. During the project phase, the e‐mail communication between group members was captured as well. The investigation of 60 project groups (N = 155 for the questionnaires; group size: two or three students) and 33 groups for the e‐mail communication (N = 83) revealed that personal social skills played only a minor role compared to group level configurations of social skills in predicting satisfaction with performance, perceived quality of collaboration and communication behaviour. Members from groups that showed a high and/or homogeneous configuration of specific social skills (e.g., cooperation/compromising, leadership) usually were more satisfied and saw their group as more efficient than members from groups with a low and/or heterogeneous configuration of skills.     

Social gaming is inSIDE: Impact of anonymity and group identity on performance in a team game-based learning environment

The present experiment aimed to determine how quiz performance in a team game-based learning environment can be predicted from the Social Identity model of Deindividuation Effects (SIDE). According to this model, anonymity influences social behavior by accentuating the salience of group identity and reducing interpersonal differences, leading to greater group identification and motivation to work for one's own group. As these effects could lead to higher cognitive performance, the goal of the present research was to extend predictions based on the SIDE model on performance in online game-based learning environments. After measuring their prior computing knowledge, 343 Master Degree students were placed in virtual teams on a trivial criterion to perform a series of online quizzes about computing and the Internet. An anonymous (or individuated) username was attributed to each team member to connect to the online learning environment, and information about comparison between teams was used to manipulate the degree of salience of group identity (high versus low). As predicted by the SIDE model, anonymity boosted performance when group identity was salient, but only for students with low prior knowledge. Unexpectedly, it was also found that anonymity boosted the performance of students with high prior knowledge when group identity was not salient. A similar pattern was found for perceived mastery of computing and the Internet. Theoretical and practical implications of the SIDE model are discussed, and specifically its application to social gaming to optimize online learning.