Enhancing middle school students' scientific learning and motivation through agent‐based learning

Facing students' decreasing motivation to pursue scientific study, schools and educators need to coordinate new technologies with pedagogical agents to effectively sustain or promote students' scientific learning and motivation to learn. Although the provision of pedagogical agents in student learning has been studied previously, it is not clear what benefits the strategy might offer with regard to student motivation. This study proposes an agent‐based mechanism that integrates problem‐solving and inquiry‐based instructions to help students better understand complex scientific concepts and to sustain their motivation to learn science. In this study, a quasi‐experiment was conducted to evaluate the performance and feasibility of our proposed mechanism. The results revealed that the agent‐based mechanism was effective and feasible for enhancing students' learning and motivation to learn. The mechanism was associated with increases in the acquisition of knowledge when compared with the control group. Its effect in promoting and sustaining students' motivation was also statistically significant. Detailed discussions of the findings are provided in this study.     

Level of intrinsic motivation of distance education students in e‐learning environments

According to researches, motivation that initiates and sustains behaviour is one of the most significant components of learning in any environment. Accordingly, level of intrinsic motivation triggers and sustains the interest of the open and distance education students when it comes to learning on their own in e‐learning environments. Despite a comprehensive literature regarding the motivation of those learning in traditional learning environments, the number of studies addressing the motivation of open and distance education students in e‐learning environments is not sufficient. In this context, this study aims at determining the level of intrinsic motivation of open and distance education students. Thus, data were collected from 1,639 distance education students in 22 programmes, through Intrinsic Motivation in e‐Learning Questionnaire developed and validated to that end. Analyses carried out indicate that the level of intrinsic motivation of open and distance education students is high in e‐learning environments, but there is not a statistically significant difference by gender, programme structure (graduate/undergraduate), instruction type (distance–blended), and academic disciplines.     

Improving the effectiveness of English vocabulary review by integrating ARCS with mobile game‐based learning

Memorizing English vocabulary is often considered uninteresting, and a lack of motivation exists during learning activities. Moreover, most vocabulary practice systems automatically select words from articles and do not provide integrated model methods for students. Therefore, this study constructed a mobile game‐based English vocabulary practice system, which imitates the popular block elimination game and combines test items of article, difficulty, and teacher model in accordance with curriculum objectives and demands. The participants were first‐year students and classified into traditional group (Group T) and game‐based group (Group G), and learning effectiveness and motivation were analysed in this study. According to statistical analysis results, students who used the game‐based vocabulary practice system, which could captivate their attention and interest, had higher learning effectiveness and provided positive feedback of learning motivation. Furthermore, English teachers could select teaching materials that are consistent with the features, knowledge, and cultural background of learners to improve the relevance dimension of learning motivation.     

Interplay of prior knowledge,self‐regulation and motivation in complex multimedia learning environments

This study examined the direct and indirect effects of medical clerkship students' prior knowledge, self‐regulation and motivation on learning performance in complex multimedia learning environments. The data from 386 medical clerkship students from six medical schools were analysed using structural equation modeling. The structural model revealed that medical students' prior knowledge directly positively affected their learning outcome, self‐efficacy and performance approach goal orientation. The learners' self‐regulation had a significant positive direct effect on learning outcome. The learners' mastery goal orientation directly affected their learning outcome. Interestingly, inconsistent with our hypothesis, the learners' performance approach goal orientation showed a significant negative direct effect on learning outcome, and performance avoidance goal orientation had a significant positive effect on learning outcome. These findings help develop a more comprehensive understanding of the role of individual characteristics on learning performance of complex tasks in multimedia learning environments.     

The impact of team‐based learning on students with different self‐regulated learning abilities

Team‐based learning (TBL) stresses applying knowledge rather than absorbing knowledge in class; studies have investigated the use of TBL and its merits in different teaching courses (e.g., medical science and business). TBL is most effective when students learn autonomously before class. However, the ability of autonomous learning is highly associated with the ability of self‐regulated learning (SRL); most importantly, not every student possesses good (or high) SRL ability. Nevertheless, few studies have compared the effectiveness of TBL in students with different SRL abilities. To address this issue, this study analyzed approximately 90 students, whose course teaching involves office application software (Microsoft Excel). This study also developed an online TBL system (called Online TBL) to facilitate performing TBL and to collect the learning behaviours of students with different (high or low) SRL abilities on each TBL stage. The analytical results show that compared with the low‐SRL students, the high‐SRL students were more prepared for class because they spent more reviewing material and had better scores on personal uploaded Excel and Individual Readiness Assurance Test. From the feedback of the peer evaluation, the results also show that the high‐SRL students received more credits than the low‐SRL students did. The questionnaire survey revealed that both low‐SRL and high‐SRL students had a favourable impression of TBL. Further discussion is given to explain the above results.     

Effects of anxiety levels on learning performance and gaming performance in digital game‐based learning

Anxiety plays an influential role in foreign language learning. However, a lack of attention was paid to examining the effects of anxiety levels on learning performance and gaming performance in digital game‐based learning. To this end, this study developed a game‐based English learning system and investigated how different levels of anxiety affected learners' learning performance and gaming performance. A quasi‐experiment was conducted in an elementary school. The results showed that high‐anxiety learners performed worse than low‐anxiety learners in speaking, word/sentence match, and overall learning performance. However, they performed similarly in listening performance. Moreover, the results showed that high‐ and low‐anxiety learners demonstrated a similar level of gaming performance. A subsequent analysis showed that significant correlations existed between learning performance and gaming performance for learners with high anxiety whereas such positive correlations were rarely found for learners with low anxiety, indicating that high‐anxiety learners' learning performance could be fostered by their gaming performance. The findings suggested that digital game‐based learning was particularly beneficial to high‐anxiety learners, whose gaming performance was a facilitative factor of their learning performance.     

Inventing motivates and prepares student teachers for computer‐based learning

A brief, problem‐oriented phase such as an inventing activity is one potential instructional method for preparing learners not only cognitively but also motivationally for learning. Student teachers often need to overcome motivational barriers in order to use computer‐based learning opportunities. In a preliminary experiment, we found that student teachers who were given paper‐based course material spent more time on follow‐up coursework than teachers who were given a well‐developed computer‐based learning environment (CBLE), leading to higher learning outcomes. Thus, we tested inventing as an instructional method that may help overcome motivational barriers of teachers' use of computer‐supported tools or learning environments in our main experimental study (N = 44). As a computer‐based environment, we used the ‘Assessment of Learning strategies in Learning journals’. The inventing group produced ideas about criteria to evaluate learning strategies based on student cases prior to the learning phase. The control condition read a text containing possible answers to the inventing problem. The inventing activity enhanced motivation prior to the learning phase and assessment skills as assessed by transfer problems. Hence, the inventing activity prepared student teachers to learn from a CBLE in a motivational as well as cognitive way.     

Learning loops – interactions between guided reflection and experience‐based learning in a serious game activity

In a study on experience‐based learning in serious games, 45 players were tested for topic comprehension by a questionnaire administered before and after playing the single‐player serious game Peacemaker (Impact Games 2007). Players were divided into two activity conditions: 20 played a 1‐h game with a 3‐min half‐time break to complete an affect self‐report form while 25 also participated in a 20‐min reflective group discussion during their half‐time break. During the discussion, they were asked by an experimenter to reflect on a set of topics related to the game. We present the analysis of the questionnaires, which illustrates that contrary to our expectations the reflection period had a negative effect on the learning of the players as judged by their performance on closed‐form questions at levels 1–5 (out of 6) on the Bloom taxonomy of learning outcomes. The questionnaire also included a few open questions which gave the players a possibility to display deep (level 6) learning. The players did not differ significantly between conditions regarding the questions measuring deep learning.     

Creating user‐generated content for location‐based learning: an authoring framework

Two recent emerging trends are that of Web 2.0, where users actively create content and publish it on the Web, and also location awareness, where a digital device utilizes a person's physical location as the context to provide specific services and/or information. This paper examines how these two phenomena can be brought together so that user‐generated content on mobile devices is used to provide informal learning opportunities relevant to a person's location. However, the generative process of such media does not always have much guidance on how or what to create, so the quality of such information can be highly variable. To overcome this, a framework has been designed to guide the authoring of user‐generated content so that it can be used for informal learning about one's immediate surroundings (particularly in an outdoor setting), combining pedagogical aspects with those from human–computer interaction and environmental aesthetics. The framework consists of six dimensions that include aspects such as curriculum area (e.g. science, art), type of communication, use of language/media related to the landscape, knowledge level of content, contextual aspects, and types of interaction. In order to test the framework before it could be used to scaffold new content, it was first used to analyse and evaluate over 200 items of existing user‐generated content, to investigate the appropriateness of the proposed dimensions and the items contained therein or if any were missing. This paper presents the findings of this initial testing phase, together with a discussion of how the framework can be improved, in order to help scaffold the creation of new user‐generated content in the future.     

Learning in a mobile age: an investigation of student motivation

The purpose of this single‐case study was to explore the lived experiences of a grade 6 teacher and students who used tablets as part of their classroom instruction. Malone and Lepper's taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning is used as a framework for examining whether and how this particular theory of motivation applies equally well for mobile learning. This study reports on the grade 6 teacher's and students' perceptions regarding the motivational affordances of using these mobile devices for learning. The findings are consistent with those of Malone and Lepper that motivation can be enhanced through challenge, curiosity, control, recognition, competition and cooperation. This model is helpful in informing our understanding of the motivating features of using mobile devices for learning and how mobile technologies can be used to enhance learners' motivation.     

内部动机驱动的机器人未知环境在线自主学习

针对目前智能移动机器人在未知环境中学习遇到的如学习主动性、实时性差,无法在线积累学习的知识和经验等问题,受心理学中内部动机的启发,提出一种内部动机驱动的移动机器人未知环境在线自主学习方法,在一定程度上弥补目前该领域存在的一些问题。该方法通过在移动机器人Q学习的框架下,将奖励机制用基于心理学启发的内部动机取代,提高其对于未知环境的学习主动性,同时,采用增量自组织神经网络代替经典Q学习中的查找表,实现输入输出空间的映射,使得机器人能够在线增量地学习未知环境。实验结果表明,通过内部动机驱动的方法,移动机器人对于未知环境的学习主动性得到了提高,智能程度有了明显改进。     

Learning adaptivity in support of flipped learning: An ontological problem‐solving approach

In recent years, flipped learning has received tremendous attention from educational practitioners and researchers. However, this study argues that existing e‐learning systems mainly serve for learning management and content delivery purposes, although they lack support for flipped learning. As an innovative educational approach, flipped learning requires more pedagogical elements, such as integrated instructional design and adaptive content delivery, to achieve effective direct instruction. This study aims to create a learning adaptivity design to support effective learning in the flipped individual learning space in which the teacher is absent. Because teaching involves various pedagogical and content knowledge sources, we propose a conceptual model of teaching as a function of the knowledge triad of Guideline (G), Teaching Activity (T), and Material (M). To realize this conceptualization, an ontological problem‐solving approach is used for knowledge‐based systems development to integrate the relevant knowledge sources. The knowledge model is created using the Protégé platform to develop OWL‐based domain ontology, task ontology, and SWRL‐based semantic rules to enable inference in the GTM triad for learning adaptivity. The case illustration shows that the knowledge‐based system prototype can adaptively guide student learning in the flipped individual learning space with the knowledge sources integrated.     

Mobile game-based learning in secondary education: engagement, motivation and learning in a mobile city game

Using mobile games in education combines situated and active learning with fun in a potentially excellent manner. The effects of a mobile city game called Frequency 1550, which was developed by The Waag Society to help pupils in their first year of secondary education playfully acquire historical knowledge of medieval Amsterdam, were investigated in terms of pupil engagement in the game, historical knowledge, and motivation for History in general and the topic of the Middle Ages in particular. A quasi-experimental design was used with 458 pupils from 20 classes from five schools. The pupils in 10 of the classes played the mobile history game whereas the pupils in the other 10 classes received a regular, project-based lesson series. The results showed those pupils who played the game to be engaged and to gain significantly more knowledge about medieval Amsterdam than those pupils who received regular project-based instruction. No significant differences were found between the two groups with respect to motivation for History or the Middle Ages. The impact of location-based technology and game-based learning on pupil knowledge and motivation are discussed along with suggestions for future research.     

Digital Game-Based Learning in high school Computer Science education: Impact on educational effectiveness and student motivation

The aim of this study was to assess the learning effectiveness and motivational appeal of a computer game for learning computer memory concepts, which was designed according to the curricular objectives and the subject matter of the Greek high school Computer Science (CS) curriculum, as compared to a similar application, encompassing identical learning objectives and content but lacking the gaming aspect. The study also investigated potential gender differences in the game’s learning effectiveness and motivational appeal. The sample was 88 students, who were randomly assigned to two groups, one of which used the gaming application (Group A, N = 47) and the other one the non-gaming one (Group B, N = 41). A Computer Memory Knowledge Test (CMKT) was used as the pretest and posttest. Students were also observed during the interventions. Furthermore, after the interventions, students’ views on the application they had used were elicited through a feedback questionnaire. Data analyses showed that the gaming approach was both more effective in promoting students’ knowledge of computer memory concepts and more motivational than the non-gaming approach. Despite boys’ greater involvement with, liking of and experience in computer gaming, and their greater initial computer memory knowledge, the learning gains that boys and girls achieved through the use of the game did not differ significantly, and the game was found to be equally motivational for boys and girls. The results suggest that within high school CS, educational computer games can be exploited as effective and motivational learning environments, regardless of students’ gender.     

A study to explore the effects of self‐regulated learning environment for hearing‐impaired students

Although computer‐ and Internet‐aided learning for hearing‐impaired students has been a trend in the modern days, a few studies were done to examine their effectiveness in strengthening learning motivation and, in turn, enhancing learning efficiency. This study attempts to establish an interactive self‐regulated learning environment and employs Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction motivation model, hyperlink technology, modular concepts and online learning community to design teaching contents and presentation of teaching materials. An empirical study was conducted to examine the effects of hearing‐impaired students learning motivation and cognitive attitude of learning environment. The results showed that interactive and self‐regulated learning environment could effectively strengthen learning motivation and promote positive learning behaviour in hearing‐impaired students.     

EPE‐Mobile—A framework for early performance estimation of mobile applications

Considering the constrained resources of mobile devices, a thorough performance evaluation of a mobile application is crucial. However, performance evaluation in the mobile domain is still a manual and time‐consuming task. The diversity of mobile devices only increases the complexity of this task. We propose EPE‐Mobile, a framework to automate early performance estimation in mobile applications. It is composed of a configurable library of basic operations and an engine that automatically creates a synthetic program based on the specification of a new app. The synthetic program that EPE‐Mobile generates provides feedback for mobile developers at the first design stages and before the actual implementation of a new application. The fast evaluation can also guide developers in optimizing their applications or in choosing devices with the best trade‐off between cost and performance to run a given application. Finally, developers can reuse the data collection infrastructure of the framework to collect performance data during all development stages. We validate the proposed framework using 4 applications from the Android Play Store. Based on their specifications, 4 synthetic programs were generated and executed on different devices. We compared the results to those obtained from the execution of the actual applications in the same devices. Experimental results show that it is possible to create synthetic applications with similar behavior to that of real applications and, thus, classify devices based on the actual application needs. The framework uses aspect‐oriented programming to collect the metrics of interest. This approach provides increased modularity and separation of concerns, thus facilitating the improvement of the framework itself, by adding other metrics or basic operations.     

Micro‐adaptivity: protecting immersion in didactically adaptive digital educational games

The idea of utilizing the rich potential of today's computer games for educational purposes excites educators, scientists and technicians. Despite the significant hype over digital game‐based learning, the genre is currently at an early stage. One of the most significant challenges for research and development in this area is establishing intelligent mechanisms to support and guide the learner, and to realize a subtle balance between learning and gaming, and between challenge and ability on an individual basis. In contrast to traditional approaches of adaptive and intelligent tutoring, the key advantage of games is their immersive and motivational potential. Because of this, the psycho‐pedagogical and didactic measures must not compromise gaming experience, immersion and flow. In the present paper, we introduce the concept of micro‐adaptivity, an approach that enables an educational game to intelligently monitor and interpret the learner's behaviour in the game's virtual world in a non‐invasive manner. On this basis, micro‐adaptivity enables interventions, support, guidance or feedback in a meaningful, personalized way that is embedded in the game's flow. The presented approach was developed in the context of the European Enhanced Learning Experience and Knowledge TRAnsfer project. This project also realized a prototype game, demonstrating the capabilities, strengths and weaknesses of micro‐adaptivity.