Effect of compression point load on the path and life of fatigue crack growth in mixed mode loading

In this study, fatigue crack growth of edge crack in plate made from 5083 aluminum alloy under mixed mode fracture was numerically investigated. Effect of various parameters include initial crack direction angle (30°, 60°, 90°), initial crack length (20 and 25 mm) and load ratio (R=0 and 0.25) were considered. We also consider the effect of point compression load on crack growth life with 20 mm initial crack length under 30°, 60°, 90° at various parts of crack growth path. Mentioned models were simulated using the finite element softwares, ABAQUS and FRANC2D and their results were compared together. For validation we compare the numerical results for a specimen with its experimental data. Numerical results show good agreement with the experimental data for fracture path. It is observed that the point compression load can affect the path and life of crack growth in fatigue loading. If this load was applied in the first cycles of crack growth, its effect is more than another cases. For instance in the crack growth with initial angle 30o applying point load in 5, 10 and 15 mm of crack growth length, increase the life 79.4%, 18.9% and 6.2% respectively.     

循环扰动荷载作用下花岗岩中裂隙萌生扩展过程的颗粒流模拟

从细观角度、采用颗粒离散元法开展了预制裂隙花岗岩循环加卸载的数值模拟试验。首先,使用图像处理技术识别花岗岩中的不同细观组分、结合室内单轴压缩试验结果对细观力学参数进行了标定。然后,通过编制颗粒流代码追踪裂隙的类型和扩展过程,分析岩石破坏过程中裂隙发展的阶段性特征。结果表明:不同倾角裂隙岩石的新生裂隙走向与预制裂隙贯通方向基本一致;根据新生裂隙的优势倾向分组得到裂隙起裂角与预制裂隙倾角的关系:倾角β≤45°时剪切和张拉裂隙的起裂角单调递减,倾角β≥60°时剪切和张拉裂隙的起裂角单调递增;循环扰动荷载增加了裂隙岩体的轴向变形,轴向累积残余应变曲线呈反S形、提高扰动荷载应力上限促使曲线进入加速阶段;试件峰值强度随裂隙倾角增大表现出先减小后增大的趋势,峰值强度为实验室完整岩石单轴抗压强度的63% ~ 89%,反映了较为明显的劣化现象;在循环荷载作用下,剪切裂隙和张拉裂隙增长曲线表现出明显的变化特点,在裂隙不稳定扩展阶段中张拉裂隙数目增长速率显著大于剪切裂隙,对分析岩石变形破坏过程具有一定的参考意义。      

Crack Propagation in Flexural Fatigue of Concrete

In this paper the behavior of concrete subjected to flexural fatigue loading is studied. Notched concrete beams were tested in a three-point bending configuration. Specimens were subjected to quasi-static cyclic and constant amplitude fatigue loading. The cyclic tests were performed by unloading the specimen at different points in the postpeak part of the quasi-static loading response. Low cycle, high amplitude fatigue tests were performed to failure using four different load ranges. The crack mouth opening displacement was continuously monitored throughout the loading process. Crack propagation caused by quasi-static and fatigue loads is described in terms of fracture mechanics. It is shown that the crack propagation in the postpeak part of the quasi-static load response is predicted using the critical value of the mode I stress intensity factor (KIC). The ultimate deformation of the specimen during the fatigue test is compared with that from the quasi-static test; it is demonstrated that the quasi-static deformation is insufficient as a fatigue failure criterion. It is observed that crack growth owing to constant-amplitude fatigue loading comprises two phases: a deceleration stage when there is a decrease in crack growth rate with increasing crack length, followed by an acceleration stage where the rate of crack growth increases at a steady rate. The crack length where the rate of crack growth changes from deceleration to acceleration is shown to be equal to the crack length at the peak load of the quasi-static response. Analytical expressions for crack growth in the deceleration and acceleration stages are developed, wherein the expressions for crack growth rate in the deceleration stage are developed using the R-curve concept, and the acceleration stage is shown to follow the Paris law. It is observed that the crack length at failure for constant amplitude fatigue loading is comparable to that of the corresponding load in the postpeak part of the quasi-static response. Finally, a fracture-based fatigue failure criterion is proposed.     

含预制缺陷类岩体模型破断试验与分析

为了探究内部缺陷形状由裂隙至圆孔的变化对类岩体脆性材料破断模式与特征的影响,构建了含缺陷的单轴压缩力学模型,并利用水泥砂浆材料制作类岩体试样,系统地研究了缺陷形状由裂隙至圆孔变化过程中含缺陷试件的强度变化特征和裂纹演化扩展机制。结果表明:当荷载方向与缺陷长轴垂直时,缺陷周边应力集中在长短轴端点处且与缺陷无关;缺陷对试样峰值强度影响较为明显,在缺陷形状由裂隙向圆孔变化的过程,峰值强度降低幅度逐渐增大;缺陷变化对试样的裂纹起裂与裂纹扩展的影响不显著;缺陷试样的最终破坏模式可划分为剪切破坏和拉-剪混合破坏,当m值大于0.60时破坏模式为剪切破坏,当m值小于0.33时破坏模式为拉-剪混合破坏。     

Mechanisms of creep crack growth in 1 wt% antimony-copper: Implications for fracture parameters

A copper alloy with 1% (by weight) antimony was used as a model material and tested at 400°C to study the mechanisms of creep crack growth. At this temperature, the creep deformation in this material was dominated by secondary and tertiary creep. The expression for estimating C_t (a crack tip parameter for creep conditions) in a compact type specimen used for testing was modified to include tertiary creep deformation. Extensive damage characterization was conducted on tested creep crack growth specimens using optical metallography and scanning electron microscopy. The following observations were derived from the test results. The creep crack growth rates correlated with C_t only when intense cavitation damage was restricted to a region approximately 1.3 mm in size near the crack tip and no crack branching occurred. It was observed that the average diameter, areal density, and percent of grain boundary area cavitated decreased as function of distance from the crack tip. From these results it is argued that simultaneous nucleation and growth of cavities occur on grain boundary facets during the creep crack growth process. Percent grain boundary area cavitated is proposed as the most reasonable measure of creep damage. The critical amount of damage for crack extension appears to depend on the magnitude of the C_t parameter.     

Application of the dc potential drop technique in investigating crack initiation and propagation under sustained load in notched rupture tests

Creep specimens of IN-X750 with U and V notch geometries have been tested at 700 °C under constant load. The do potential drop technique was employed to measure local deformation, detect crack initiation, and measure crack propagation rates in the notched specimens. Rupture of the U-notched bars and crack initiation in the V-notched bars were found to be controlled by creep deformation. The time to crack initiation and the rupture time can be predicted by using the Monkman-Grant relationship, which was shown to apply to localized crack initiation and multiaxial loading conditions. Sustained load crack growth rates were measured in the V-notched specimens. The dependence of the stage II crack growth rates on the stress intensity factor, the crack initiation, and rupture behavior of IN-X750 can be unified and interpreted with the continuous nucleation and constrained cavity growth model. This paper is based on a presentation made in the symposium “Crack Propagation under Creep and Creep-Fatigue” presented at the TMS/AIME fall meeting in Orlando, FL, in October 1986, under the auspices of the ASM Flow and Fracture Committee.     

Experimental assessment of structure and property predictions during hot working

Uniaxial compression experiments were conducted in the hot-working range for a commercial purity aluminum alloy using constant strain-rate tests and strain-rate drop tests producing strain hardening, strain softening, and steady-state deformation behaviors. The structure of the deformed material was characterized by microhardness and grain shape. A single internal state variable constitutive model for flow stress was developed using the microhardness data to quantify the state variable. The change in the grain aspect ratio was related to the imposed bulk strain in the samples. The constitutive model was incorporated into a finite element program. A critical experimental assessment of predictions of the spatial variation in structure and properties throughout a workpiece was then made using a tapered compression specimen. Comparisons with experimental results indicated that the load was underpredicted by 10 pct and the microhardness by 6 pct, while the severity of the strain gradients was overpredicted. This was concluded to be due to an underprediction of the work-hardening rate at low strains. Additional calculations made with alternative constitutive models showed that the internal state variable model predicted the applied force much more accurately than alternative models.     

Crack closure load measurements for microcracks developed during the fatigue of Al 2219-T851

A compliance technique is utilized to determine the closure load for surface microcracks of one grain size and smaller produced by fully reversed loading fatigue of Al 2219-T851. Specimens are fatigued in flexure in air at 5, 18, and 45 pct relative humidities. Scanning electron microscopy is then utilized to measure crack compliance for selected microcracks and crack closure load is inferred from the break point in the linear relationship between crack opening and applied stress. For zero applied load the microcracks are found to be partially opened and a linear relationship is found between the closure load measured for the microcracks and the zero load crack opening normalized to crack length. This relationship holds regardless of the ambient humidity during fatigue, although there are significant changes in the zero load crack openings developed with humidity. An empirical relationship between the irregularity of the microcrack propagation path as affected by humidity and crack opening at zero load is also identified, which can be used to estimate crack closure load from crack dimensional parameters measured at the specimen surface.     

Crack Propagation Behaviour in Thin Aluminium Alloy Sheet Repaired with Adhesively Bonded CFRP Patch

For reducing the crack tip stress intensity factor, adhesively bonded composite patches are employed for crack repair in thin structure. Experimental work was carried out to study environmental assisted cracking behaviour of crack repaired with single-sided bonded patch in aluminium alloy of 7xxx series in peak-aged condition. The observations were also made on crack in this alloy without any patch repair. The specimen developed for conducting the experiments simulated plane stress condition of thin structure. The patched and un-patched tensile test specimens were loaded simultaneously at constant load in the presence of 3.5% weight NaCl solution. The experimental set-up simulated the saline or corrosive environment. Aggressive effect of corrosion attack on crack due to anodic dissolution along with hydrogen embrittlement leading to faster crack growth in patched specimen was revealed compared to un-patched specimen. The present study is the improvement over similar researches carried out earlier in terms of design of test specimen under plane stress condition so as to obtain all the three regions of crack growth.     

Evidence of fracture surface interference for cracks loaded in shear detected by phase-shifted speckle interferometry

Interference of the asperities on a crack loaded in pure, remote shear wedges the crack faces open, thereby inducing a mode I stress intensity factor (SIF). The interference also shields the crack tip from the applied mode II SIF. Three-illumination beam, phase-shifted speckle interferometry was used to measure the three-dimensional incremental displacement fields in a 7×11 mm area around a mode I fatigue precrack in a Al 7075 specimen loaded in 94 increments of increasing shear. The displacement fields were accumulated relative to the unloaded state by sampling at appropriate locations in the incremental fields to optimize spatial resolution and compensate for large rigid body motions. The induced mode I SIF and the effective mode II SIF were estimated from the crack tip shear displacement (CTSD) and crack tip opening displacement (CTOD). A digitized fracture surface profile was numerically shifted according to the experimentally measured crack face displacements to determine the locations of fracture surface interference as a function of applied load.     

Steady state vacancy concentration around a plastic crack

The vacancy chemical potential associated with the crack region and with the lattice dislocations representing the plastic zone are identified in terms of the energy of the dislocation configuration. In order to determine the steady state vacancy concentration, the configuration is considered as made up of several internal sources of stress. The diffusion equation under steady state is solved for a crystal containing each source of stress. Further, superposition of the concentration of vacancies around each source is used to determine the total concentration of vacancies for small scale deformation at the crack tip. On the other hand, for large scale deformation at the tip, matching boundary conditions are applied to determine the concentration in each region containing an internal source. Both the discrete dislocation and the single lattice dislocation representations of the crack are employed to determine the crack growth rate. The results are used to emphasize the influence of the plastic zone on the crack growth rate by vacancy diffusion mechanism. Formerly Assistant Professor, Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Tennessee Technological University. Cookeville, TN 38501.     

Interlaminar Fracture of Composites under Tension and Compression

Interlaminar fracture of AS4∕3502 graphite∕epoxy material system is investigated using a double cracked‐lap‐shear (DCLS) specimen and a single cracked‐lap‐shear (SCLS) specimen. A fundamental feature of the designed specimens is their ability to be tested under net tensile and compressive loadings. The specimens exhibit mixed‐mode or mode II behavior depending on the loading direction. The specimens are designed to precipitate crack growth at a designed‐in site in a gage section. In the specimen design process, overall dimensions of the specimens are selected so that local disturbances in the stress field will not interact, there is adequate length to permit crack growth, and overall buckling will not occur under compressive loading. The experimental results confirm that the specimens and tests perform as designed, It is observed that: (1) There is an increasing resistance to crack growth under tensile loading; (2) interlaminar fracture under compression is a totally unstable process; and (3) tension and compression behaviors are considerably different. Fracture surfaces in the unstable regions from short beam shear and DCLS specimen tests exhibit similar characteristics.     

Failure Diagram for Chemically Assisted Crack Growth

A failure diagram that combines the thresholds for failure of a smooth specimen to that of a fracture mechanics specimen, similar to the modified Kitagawa diagram in fatigue, is presented. For a given material/environment system, the diagram defines conditions under which a crack initiated at the threshold stress in a smooth specimen becomes a propagating crack, by satisfying the threshold stress intensity of a long crack. In analogy with fatigue, it is shown that internal stresses or local stress concentrations are required to provide the necessary mechanical crack tip driving forces, on one hand, and reaction/transportation kinetics to provide the chemical potential gradients, on the other. Together, they help in the initiation and propagation of the cracks. The chemical driving forces can be expressed as equivalent mechanical stresses using the failure diagram. Both internal stresses and their gradients, in conjunction with the chemical driving forces, have to meet the minimum magnitude and the minimum gradients to sustain the growth of a microcrack formed. Otherwise, nonpropagating conditions will prevail or a crack formed will remain dormant. It is shown that the processes underlying the crack nucleation in a smooth specimen and the crack growth of a fracture mechanics specimen are essentially the same. Both require building up of internal stresses by local plasticity. The process involves intermittent crack tip blunting and microcrack nucleation until the crack becomes unstable under the applied stress.     

基于相场法的砂浆裂纹相互作用失效分析

提出一种新的基于相场法的砂浆断裂力学分析方法,对裂纹相互作用导致的砂浆试件失效行为进行模拟分析.采用非保守Allen-Cahn方程作为控制方程,借助COMSOL有限元分析软件,将线弹性力场和相场整合为统一的有限元模型,对砂浆中裂纹发展和相互作用进行模拟分析.通过砂浆三点弯曲试验和直拉试验,测试砂浆裂纹扩展过程.模拟结果与试验结果的对比分析表明,砂浆试件裂纹相互作用临界荷载的模拟计算结果与试验结果非常吻合.研究结果表明,Ⅱ型试件断裂破坏会产生更长的裂缝路径.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">In-Situ</Emphasis> Microtomographic Characterization of Single-Cavity Growth During High-Temperature Creep of Leaded Brass

Synchrotron microtomography was used for in-situ characterization of high-temperature creep damage in leaded brass. Applying image registration to subsequent tomographic reconstructions, the volumetric growth rate of single cavities with equivalent radii between 2 and 4.3 μm was assessed. We conclude from the volume dependence of the growth rates that both the viscous flow and grain boundary (GB) diffusion mechanisms influence void growth. We show that void growth in leaded brass is retarded by negative stress triaxiality, which develops in the matrix during heating the specimen to the deformation temperature.     

平面应变压缩金属流变规律及影响因素分析

 平面应变热模拟技术是塑性加工领域广泛应用的一种实验室模拟技术,现被广泛应用于测量金属的变形抗力以及金属的流动状态,是热轧过程模拟的最好的方法。为了全面研究平面应变技术,采用理论分析、数值模拟以及物理模拟的方法,系统分析了刚端、摩擦、试样尺寸以及对中性对平面应变过程中的应力状态以及金属流动的影响。研究结果显示各因素对金属流动以及实验结果的准确性有较大影响。     

X-ray microtomography for characterisation of cracks in iron ore pellets after reduction

Abstract

This work presents a method, based on X-ray microtomography and three-dimensional (3D) image analysis, of characterising and quantifying crack distribution in iron ore pellets. The aims have been to verify the method and to determine to what extent crack propagation contributes to the decrease in compressive strength that occurs during reduction at 500°C as haematite transforms into magnetite. Raw materials known to cause disintegration problems were selected in order to promote crack propagation. Pellets displayed crack lengths of sizes roughly corresponding to half the pellet diameter already before reduction and, during reduction, a further crack propagation of ～50% occurred. Through estimations by finite element analysis of the crack size and the pellet geometry, it has been possible to determine that this crack growth most likely is a mechanism that contributes to the decrease in compressive strength. The decrease of ～90% that was experimentally determined to occur after 30 min of reduction is, however, too large to be explained by crack propagation alone. The study shows that the proposed techniques allow 3D imaging of iron ore pellets and characterisation of cracks. The scans are non-destructive and can be carried out repeatedly, which allows a specific sample to be studied at different stages during a process. Through future use of the proposed method, our aim is to reach a deeper understanding of the mechanisms behind low temperature disintegration of iron ore pellets and the performance of LKAB olivine pellets inside the blast furnace.     

Water Penetration—Its Effect on the Strength and Toughness of Silica Glass

When a crack forms in silica glass, the surrounding environment flows into the crack opening, and water from the environment reacts with the glass to promote crack growth. A chemical reaction between water and the strained crack-tip bonds is commonly regarded as the cause of subcritical crack growth in glass. In silica glass, water can also have a secondary effect on crack growth. By penetrating into the glass, water generates a zone of swelling and, hence, creates a compression zone around the crack tip and on the newly formed fracture surfaces. This zone of compression acts as a fracture mechanics shield to the stresses at the crack tip, modifying both the strength and subcritical crack growth resistance of the glass. Water penetration is especially apparent in silica glass because of its low density and the fact that it contains no modifier ions. Using diffusion data from the literature, we show that the diffusion of water into silica glass can explain several significant experimental observations that have been reported on silica glass, including (1) the strengthening of silica glass by soaking the glass in water at elevated temperatures, (2) the observation of permanent crack face displacements near the crack tip of a silica specimen that had been soaked in water under load, and (3) the observation of high concentrations of water close to the fracture surfaces that had been formed in water. These effects are consistent with a model suggesting that crack growth in silica glass is modified by a physical swelling of the glass around the crack tip. An implication of water-induced swelling during fracture is that silica glass is more resistant to crack growth than it would be if swelling did not occur.     

Influence of deformation-induced martensite on fatigue crack propagation in 304-type steels

This research reports an investigation into the influence of mechanically induced martensitic transformation on the rate of fatigue crack growth in 304-type austenitic stainless steels. Two steels of different composition, 304L and 304LN, were used to test the influence of composition; two test temperatures, 298 and 77 K, were used to study the influence of test temperature; and various load ratios were used to determine the influence of the mean stress. It was found thadecreasing the mechanical stability of the austenite by changing composition or lowering temperature reduces the fatigue crack growth rate and increases the threshold stress intensity for crack growth. However, this beneficial effect diminishes as the load ratio increases, even though increasing the load ratio increases the extent of the martensite transformation. Several mechanisms that may influence this behavior are discussed, including the perturbation of the crack tip stress field, crack deflection, work hardening, and the relative brittleness of the transformed material. The perturbation of the stress field seems to be the most important; by modifying previous models, we develop a quantitative analysis of the crack growth rate that provides a reasonable fit to the experimental results.