Does aging influence people's metacomprehension? Effects of processing ease on judgments of text learning.

In 2 experiments, the authors investigated whether age-related differences exist in metacomprehension by evaluating predictions based on the ease-of-processing (EOP) hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, judgments of how well a text has been learned are based on how easily each text was processed; easier processing results in higher judgments. Participants read either sentence pairs or longer texts and judged their learning of each immediately afterward. Although an age-related difference in the use of processing ease in judgments was observed with sentence pairs, for longer texts older and younger adults' judgments were similarly related to processing ease. In both experiments, age equivalence was also evident in the accuracy of the judgments at predicting performance on the criterion test. The overall pattern of results suggests that judging text learning remains largely intact with aging. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships between metamemory, memory predictions, and memory task performance in adults.

A cross-sectional sample of adults recalled categorized word lists and narrative texts. Subjects gave performance predictions before each of 3 recall trials for each task. Older subjects had poorer memory performance and also predicted lower performance levels than did younger subjects. The LISREL models suggested (a) direct effects of memory self-efficacy (MSE) on initial predictions; (b) upgrading of prediction–performance correlations across trials, determined by direct effects of performance on subsequent predictions; (c) significant effects of a higher order verbal memory factor on MSE; and (d) an independent relationship of text recall ability to initial text recall performance predictions. These results lend support to the theoretical treatment of predictions as task-specific MSE judgments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The basis of test predictions for text material.

Investigated the relationship between test predictions and test performance for text material. Ss predicted test performance or made judgments about ease of comprehension both before and after reading short expository texts. As Ss gained more information about texts, the correlations between predictions and performance increased. Generally, test predictions were better predictors of test performance than were ease of comprehension ratings. Exps 2 and 3 showed that Ss use domain familiarity in their test predictions, but this declines from before to after reading. Increased accuracy of test predictions from before to after reading was interpreted as indicating that Ss use specific information gained from reading texts to make accurate predictions about their future test performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Test prediction and performance in a classroom context.

This study focused on students' ability to predict and postdict test performance in a classroom context. Ninety-nine undergraduate students participated during a semester-length course in which the relation between self-assessment and performance was stressed. Research questions were (a) Can students accurately predict test performance? (b) Does accuracy vary with performance? (c) Does prediction accuracy increase over multiple tests? and (d) Do prior performance and predictions of performance influence subsequent predictions? High-performing students were accurate, with accuracy improving over multiple exams. Low-performing students showed moderate prediction accuracy but good postdiction accuracy. Lowest performing students showed gross overconfidence in predictions and postdictions. Judgments of performance were influenced by prior judgments and not prior performance. Performance and judgments of performance had little influence on subsequent test preparation behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Context, feedback, and the calibration and resolution of confidence in perceptual judgments

The effects of variations in the global task difficulty context on judgmental confidence and confidence calibration were investigated in two experiments requiring perceptual comparisons. In Experiment 1, target judgments of moderate difficulty were embedded in a larger set of more difficult (hard context) or less difficult (easy context) judgments. Decisional response time on the target items was longer in the hard context condition, but there was no effect of difficulty context on target judgment confidence, accuracy, over/underconfidence, calibration, or resolution. In Experiment 2, each subject was exposed to three levels of local judgment difficulty. The global contextual difficulty manipulation involved varying the frequency with which the hard and easy judgments appeared, and the presence or absence of trial-by-trial response feedback was manipulated between subjects. As in Experiment 1, contextual difficulty affected decisional response times but not mean confidence ratings or accuracy. However, we found that providing feedback on a globally difficult task makes calibration worse. Also, resolution (the ability to differentiate correct from incorrect judgments) was found to be superior for easy judgments in a difficult context and for difficult judgments in an easy context. We discuss the implication of these findings for research on confidence and confidence calibration.     

Relations between children's overestimation of their physical abilities and accident proneness.

Two experiments examined developmental changes in the accuracy of children's judgments about their physical abilities. Experiment 1 showed that 6- and 8-year-olds overestimated their ability to perform tasks just beyond and well beyond their ability. Adults only had difficulty making judgments about tasks just beyond their ability. Experiment 2 investigated how experience with performing activities influences judgments about physical abilities. Six-year-olds again overestimated their ability to perform tasks just beyond and well beyond their ability. Eight-year-olds were more accurate about tasks well beyond than just beyond their ability. In both experiments, overestimation of ability was associated with accidental injuries for 6- but not for 8-year-olds. The discussion focuses on children's overestimation of physical abilities and the relation between overestimation and accident proneness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Integration and its effect on acquiring knowledge about competing scientific theories for text.

Successful learning from scientific text depends upon a learner's ability to integrate successively encountered ideas in the text. High school and university students read texts that presented competing theories for ongoing scientific problems (e.g., the gradualist vs. catastrophic theories of dinosaur extinction) under two conditions: an integrated-text format versus a separate-text format. The integrated-text format was designed to portray science as inquiry and offered each theory as a possible solution to the scientific problem. The separate text presented the two theories successively in separate texts and made no mention of their conflicting nature. In general, the integrated-text format tended to facilitate performance on tests that measured integration of ideas rather than memory for discrete facts. The study showed that successful learning is also affected by learner characteristics, such as the maturity of the learner's epistemic views about knowledge and the capacity of the learner's working memory. The results suggest that integration processes contribute significantly to students' abilities to gain a deep understanding of science from written texts. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reading skill: Some adult comparisons.

Three groups of college readers were compared on several information-processing and language comprehension tasks that tap the cognitive components of reading. The groups were skilled readers with high verbal and nonverbal abilities, low-skilled readers with a disparity between verbal and nonverbal abilities, and low-skilled readers who were low in both verbal and nonverbal ability. Results confirm the importance of word processing and general language comprehension in distinguishing skilled from less skilled readers. Results also support the view that reading ability is best described as a continuous function and provide evidence of the reemergence of lower level processing skills in adults as a function of text difficulty. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reader and text variables as determinants of discourse memory in adulthood.

Compared the performance of 24 61–75 yr old students with that of 24 18–28 yr old students and also with the performance of 24 63–75 yr old nonstudents who read and recalled short texts that were in either narrative or expository form. In addition, a set of 6 verbal ability measures thought to be related to discourse memory was obtained for all of the Ss. Older Ss recalled less from the texts than younger Ss, and neither type of text nor student status modified the magnitude of the age differences. The set of verbal ability measures was adequately described by 2 principal components, one consisting of simple, speed-related skills, and the other consisting of more complex skills. Each set of variables predicted a proportion of discourse memory variance and accounted for some of the variance that would otherwise be attributed to age. Results suggest that age differences in some basic cognitive skills related to reading effectiveness might underlie age differences in memory for discourse. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role of practice tests in the accuracy of test predictions on text material.

Investigated the role of practice tests in predictions about test performance on texts. Generally, Ss predicted their relative performance on tests accurately. However, answering practice-test questions that were drawn from the same pool as criterion-test questions did not improve prediction accuracy. The main reason for this was that practice-test scores for specific texts did not correlate with criterion-test scores. In addition, neither practice tests that were identical to the criterion tests nor practice tests consisting of the question stems improved the accuracy of test predictions relative to no-practice tests. With identical practice and criterion tests, accuracy of self-generated feedback correlated positively with the accuracy of test predictions. For similar practice and criterion tests, however, accurate experimenter-provided feedback reduced test-prediction accuracy, presumably because of the lack of reliability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comprehension calibration and recall prediction accuracy of texts: Reading skill, reading strategies, and effort.

High school students at 3 levels of verbal skill rated their own recall (prediction accuracy) and comprehension (calibration accuracy) of 3 expository texts accompanied by 3 different sets of instructions. All sets of instructions emphasized reading for understanding, and two of them also involved key words (given or personally selected), which were to be used during study. Students assessed which instructions they preferred and estimated their general verbal and memory skills. Three major results were obtained (a) Students seemed to assess their general verbal and memory skills quite well. (b) Acceptable levels of comprehension calibration and recall prediction accuracy were found. Verbal-skill differences were found for recall prediction accuracy but not for comprehension calibration accuracy. (c) students had study preferences—the most preferred way to study increased performance but reduced prediction accuracy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding the Delayed-Keyword Effect on Metacomprehension Accuracy.

The typical finding from research on metacomprehension is that accuracy is quite low. However, recent studies have shown robust accuracy improvements when judgments follow certain generation tasks (summarizing or keyword listing) but only when these tasks are performed at a delay rather than immediately after reading (K. W. Thiede & M. C. M. Anderson, 2003; K. W. Thiede, M. C. M. Anderson, & D. Therriault, 2003). The delayed and immediate conditions in these studies confounded the delay between reading and generation tasks with other task lags, including the lag between multiple generation tasks and the lag between generation tasks and judgments. The first 2 experiments disentangle these confounded manipulations and provide clear evidence that the delay between reading and keyword generation is the only lag critical to improving metacomprehension accuracy. The 3rd and 4th experiments show that not all delayed tasks produce improvements and suggest that delayed generative tasks provide necessary diagnostic cues about comprehension for improving metacomprehension accuracy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's judgments of their own and their peers' academic competence.

A standardized open-ended interview was used to study how 96 4–8 yr old children judged their own and their classmates' abilities. Ss were asked to explain how they knew who in their class was best and who was worst at various tasks and who was the best and who was the worst thinker. Ss also rated themselves and their classmates on how smart each was and explained their ratings. Content analyses of responses revealed that younger Ss, particularly males, were more likely than older Ss to refer to sociability in their ability judgments; they were less likely to base their judgments on social comparisons or on the difficulty level of the task. Ss at all age levels frequently explained ability judgments in terms of effort or work habits, although work habits tended to be referred to less by preschool-age Ss than by older Ss. Ss' ratings of their own ability declined with grade; ratings for peers were lower than self-ratings and did not change as a function of grade level. Self-ability ratings of Ss in kindergarten through the 3rd grade and their ratings of classmates were significantly correlated to teacher ratings of relative academic standing. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Confidence-Accuracy Calibration in Absolute and Relative Face Recognition Judgments.

Confidence-accuracy (CA) calibration was examined for absolute and relative face recognition judgments as well as for recognition judgments from groups of stimuli presented simultaneously or sequentially (i.e., simultaneous or sequential mini-lineups). When the effect of difficulty was controlled, absolute and relative judgments produced negligibly different CA calibration, whereas no significant difference was observed for simultaneous and sequential mini-lineups. Further, the effect of difficulty on CA calibration was equivalent across judgment and mini-lineup types. It is interesting to note that positive (i.e., old) recognition judgments demonstrated strong CA calibration whereas negative (i.e., new) judgments evidenced little or no CA association. Implications for eyewitness identification are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Calibration of Comprehension: Research and Implications for Education and Instruction

The ability to accurately evaluate one's understanding of text information is critical for optimum learning to take place. One widely used paradigm for examining the accuracy of individuals' self-assessed comprehension has been termed calibration of comprehension. In this paradigm, students read a passage and are asked to make predictions about their future performance on a comprehension test. Calibration of comprehension is the relation between students' confidence and performance or between predicted and actual performance. In the present paper we review research on calibration of comprehension, examining a number of variables that have been found to influence calibration ability. In the first three sections of our paper we focus on the effects of individual, task, and text variables on students' calibration of comprehension. In the final section, we discuss implications of research on calibration for education and instruction. Copyright 1998 Academic Press.     

Developmental aspects of the feeling of knowing.

Prior reports that feeling-of-knowing (FOK) accuracy increases through childhood and remains constant during adulthood are inconclusive because (a) they used absolute FOK judgments that can be contaminated by differences in the threshold for claiming to know, (b) they used measures of FOK accuracy that are not invariant across different degrees of recognition-test difficulty, and (c) they did not rule out the possibility that age-related differences in FOK accuracy may be caused by changes in the reliability of FOK judgments. We avoided these methodological problems in two studies by using relative FOK judgments, by computing Goodman-Kruskal gamma coefficients to assess FOK accuracy, and by assessing the test–retest reliability of the subjects' FOK judgments. We found that 6-year-olds had less reliable FOK judgments but greater FOK accuracy than 10-year-olds or 18-year-olds. Moreover, 18- and 70-year-olds had equally reliable FOK judgments and equivalent FOK accuracy. Possible reasons for the greater FOK accuracy of youngsters included their lower rate of commission errors and more frequent recognition of correct answers for their commissions. Implications are drawn for the study of metacognitive development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age differences in feeling-of-knowing and confidence judgments as a function of knowledge domain.

For two semantic knowledge domains, general and computer-related, feeling-of-knowing (FOK) and confidence level (CL) ratings and their relative accuracy were assessed in young, middle-aged, and older adults, after test difficulty was equated across age groups. Global memory self-efficacy beliefs were also assessed for each domain. As expected, greater age was associated with poorer memory self-efficacy beliefs only in the computer domain. The oldest two groups were found to be more underconfident than young adults when rating their FOK but not their CL, for computer items but not for general items. Statistical control of age differences in memory self-efficacy beliefs in the relevant domain greatly reduced this age effect on computer-related FOK ratings. This finding suggests that absolute FOK judgments are more closely related to memory self-efficacy beliefs than are CL judgments. Gamma correlations between judgments and recognition performance revealed that all age groups were equally accurate in FOK and in CL judgments, in both domains. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Everyday problem solving in adulthood and old age.

We examined everyday problem solving in adulthood and compared it with traditional measures of cognitive abilities. In the first phase of the research, we describe the construction of an inventory to assess problem solving in situations that adults might encounter in everyday life and examine raters' judgments of effective responses to the problems. In the second phase, adults (N?=?126) between the ages of 20 and 78 were administered the inventory and tests of verbal and abstract problem-solving abilities. Results indicated modest but significant positive correlations between performance on the inventory and traditional ability tests. The examination of age differences revealed that performance on the Everyday Problem-Solving Inventory and verbal ability test increased with age, whereas performance on a traditional problem-solving test declined after middle age. In addition, education was unrelated to everyday problem solving, highly related to verbal ability, and moderately related to traditional problem solving. Results are discussed in relation to pluralistic conceptions of intelligence and theories of adult intellectual development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Confronting task difficulty in ego involvement: Change in performance goals.

Both Dweck (1986) and Nicholls (1984) proposed that when ego-involved individuals encounter difficulty, they would begin to doubt their level of ability, and as a consequence, their commitment to the goal of demonstrating high ability would decline. As difficulty continued, perceived ability would decline, and eventually the goal would be abandoned. In the present study, the authors tested these predictions utilizing a longitudinal experimental design to assess changes across time in students' perceived ability, achievement goals, performance, and affective reactions as they experienced differing levels of task difficulty in an ego-involving context. College students (N = 156) participated in 3 sessions, each 1 week apart, in which they were given ego-involving instructions and worked on “intelligence test” items. While the average level of difficulty of the session increased progressively in the experimental condition, it remained similar across sessions for the control condition. Results were generally supportive of the original predictions. As the difficulty of the items increased across sessions, students' perceived ability declined and so did their commitment to performance-approach goals, while their endorsement of work-avoidance goals increased. Also consistent with predictions, students experiencing increasing difficulty expressed stronger escapist thoughts, more negative affect, and less positive affect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Situation models and aging.

Younger and older adults were tested for their ability to process and retrieve information from texts. The authors focused on the construction and retrieval of situation models relative to other types of text representations. The results showed that during memory retrieval, younger adults showed superior memory for surface form and textbase knowledge (what the text was), whereas older adults had equivalent or superior memory for situation model information (what the text was about). The results also showed that during reading, older and younger adults were similar in their sensitivity to various aspects of the texts. Overall, these findings suggest that although there are age-related declines in the processing and memory for text-based information, for higher level representations, these abilities appear to be preserved. Several possibilities for why this is the case are discussed, including an in-depth consideration of one possibility that involves W. Kintsch's (1988) construction-integration model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)