Model selection for modified gravity

In this article, we review model selection predictions for modified gravity scenarios as an explanation for the observed acceleration of the expansion history of the Universe. We present analytical procedures for calculating expected Bayesian evidence values in two cases: (i) that modified gravity is a simple parametrized extension of general relativity (GR; two nested models), such that a Bayes' factor can be calculated, and (ii) that we have a class of non-nested models where a rank-ordering of evidence values is required. We show that, in the case of a minimal modified gravity parametrization, we can expect large area photometric and spectroscopic surveys, using three-dimensional cosmic shear and baryonic acoustic oscillations, to 'decisively' distinguish modified gravity models over GR (or vice versa), with odds of ?1:100. It is apparent that the potential discovery space for modified gravity models is large, even in a simple extension to gravity models, where Newton's constant G is allowed to vary as a function of time and length scale. On the time and length scales where dark energy dominates, it is only through large-scale cosmological experiments that we can hope to understand the nature of gravity.     

Tensor-vector-scalar-modified gravity: from small scale to cosmology

The impressive success of the standard cosmological model has suggested to many that its ingredients are all that one needs to explain galaxies and their systems. I summarize a number of known problems with this programme. They might signal the failure of standard gravity theory on galaxy scales. The requisite hints as to the alternative gravity theory may lie with the modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND) paradigm, which has proved to be an effective summary of galaxy phenomenology. A simple nonlinear modified gravity theory does justice to MOND at the non-relativistic level, but cannot be consistently promoted to relativistic status. The obstacles were first side-stepped with the formulation of tensor-vector-scalar theory (TeVeS), a covariant-modified gravity theory. I review its structure, its MOND and Newtonian limits, and its performance in the face of galaxy phenomenology. I also summarize features of TeVeS cosmology and describe the confrontation with data from strong and weak gravitational lensing.     

One gravitational potential or two? Forecasts and tests

The metric of a perturbed Robertson-Walker space-time is characterized by three functions: a scale-factor giving the expansion history and two potentials that generalize the single potential of Newtonian gravity. The Newtonian potential induces peculiar velocities and, from these, the growth of matter fluctuations. Massless particles respond equally to the Newtonian potential and to a curvature potential. The difference of the two potentials, called the gravitational slip, is predicted to be very small in general relativity, but can be substantial in modified gravity theories. The two potentials can be measured, and gravity tested on cosmological scales, by combining weak gravitational lensing or the integrated Sachs-Wolfe effect with galaxy peculiar velocities or clustering.     

Modifications of gravity

General relativity (GR) is a phenomenologically successful theory that rests on firm foundations, but has not been tested on cosmological scales. The deep mystery of dark energy (and possibly even the requirement of cold dark matter (CDM)) has increased the need for testing modifications to GR, as the inference of such otherwise undetected fluids depends crucially on the theory of gravity. Here, I discuss a general scheme for constructing consistent and covariant modifications to the Einstein equations. This framework is such that there is a clear connection between the modification and the underlying field content that produces it. I argue that this is mandatory for distinguishing modifications of gravity from conventional fluids. I give a non-trivial example, a simple metric-based modification of the fluctuation equations for which the background is exact ΛCDM, but differs from it in the perturbations. I show how this can be generalized and solved in terms of two arbitrary functions. Finally, I discuss future prospects and directions of research.     

Outstanding questions: physics beyond the Standard Model

The Standard Model of particle physics agrees very well with experiment, but many important questions remain unanswered, among them are the following. What is the origin of particle masses and are they due to a Higgs boson? How does one understand the number of species of matter particles and how do they mix? What is the origin of the difference between matter and antimatter, and is it related to the origin of the matter in the Universe? What is the nature of the astrophysical dark matter? How does one unify the fundamental interactions? How does one quantize gravity? In this article, I introduce these questions and discuss how they may be addressed by experiments at the Large Hadron Collider, with particular attention to the search for the Higgs boson and supersymmetry.     

Model-independent tests of cosmic gravity

Gravitation governs the expansion and fate of the universe, and the growth of large-scale structure within it, but has not been tested in detail on these cosmic scales. The observed acceleration of the expansion may provide signs of gravitational laws beyond general relativity (GR). Since the form of any such extension is not clear, from either theory or data, we adopt a model-independent approach to parametrizing deviations to the Einstein framework. We explore the phase space dynamics of two key post-GR functions and derive a classification scheme, and an absolute criterion on accuracy necessary for distinguishing classes of gravity models. Future surveys will be able to constrain the post-GR functions' amplitudes and forms to the required precision, and hence reveal new aspects of gravitation.     

Neutrino mass measurements

Before we can be sure we have a dark-matter problem we have to first be certain that no known particle can account for the missing matter. The last possibility has long been the neutrino, which, while massless in the Standard Model of particle physics, is the second most numerous particle in the Universe (after the photon) and thus (if massive) a potential source of substantial unaccounted for mass. Recent neutrino oscillation measurements have, in fact, confirmed that the Standard Model is incomplete and that neutrinos have mass. However, recent measurements have confirmed that the resulting mass is insufficient for neutrinos to make up the bulk of the dark matter. In fact, observations of the matter distribution in the Universe are now competing with laboratory measurements in their sensitivity to the absolute masses of neutrinos. The article discusses all these measurements and gives some guesses about where we may get in our measurements of neutrino masses in the future.     

Cosmological probes of modified gravity: the nonlinear regime

We review the effects of modified gravity on large-scale structure in the nonlinear regime, focusing on f(R) gravity and the Dvali-Gabadadze-Porrati model, for which full N-body simulations have been performed. In particular, we discuss the abundance of massive halos, the nonlinear matter power spectrum and the dynamics within clusters and galaxies, with particular emphasis on the screening mechanisms present in these models.     

Sloshing in microgravity

The International Space Station provides a low gravity environment for experiments that require very low acceleration. The steady component of acceleration due to the gravity gradient is in the microgravity range. It is possible to achieve microgravity levels for the variable component by using isolation racks. For experiments cooled by liquid cryogens sloshing may increase the variable acceleration at the experiment beyond acceptable levels. Sloshing of cryogens in microgravity can be predicted using a surface wave model. The model should include: a calculation of the shape of the unperturbed liquid–gas interface; a listing of the normal modes and resonant frequencies for the container; a prediction of the amplitude of the modes in response to the motion of the container; and a test to detect the breakdown of linear theory. A model is presented that contains these components. The shape of the interface is calculated and it is found that for most anticipated applications the interface is nearly cylindrical or spherical. Since gravity is not aligned with the symmetry of the container, the depth of the liquid is variable. Examples are presented to show how to estimate the extent of variable depth and curved interface on the normal modes and resonant frequencies. Equations are derived for the dynamic interaction of the isolation rack, the dewar and the sloshing motion. Damping is introduced by using boundary layer theory. Random vibration theory is applied to the incoherent component of the driving spectrum while standard resonance formalism is used for the coherent component. The model cannot be used if the wave amplitude becomes so large that linear theory does not apply. A procedure is developed to check for nonlinear difficulties.     

钢管混凝土单圆管拱模型重力失真影响振动台试验研究

为了研究重力失真对振动台试验相似模型地震响应的影响,基于人工质量的混合模型相似理论,以缩尺比为1:10的钢管混凝土单圆管拱结构为试验模型,通过设置5种不同人工质量为重力失真度参数,采用5种不同时间压缩比的地震波及人工波,进行了纵向、横向地震模拟振动台试验。试验结果表明:重力失真对拱结构模型第一阶频率相似的影响显著,重力失真度越大,模型第一阶频率相似系数试验值和理论值之间的误差也越大;输入波的频率比较小时,重力失真度越小的模型加速度响应越大,加速度峰值时间越延后;重力失真度和输入波的频率比对模型横向（Y向）加速度响应的影响要大于纵向（X向）的影响;通过调整模型配重及输入波的频率比,可减小模型的重力失真对加速度响应的影响。     

Designing surveys for tests of gravity

Modified gravity theories may provide an alternative to dark energy to explain cosmic acceleration. We argue that the observational programme developed to test dark energy needs to be augmented to capture new tests of gravity on astrophysical scales. Several distinct signatures of gravity theories exist outside the 'linear' regime, especially owing to the screening mechanism that operates inside halos such as the Milky Way to ensure that gravity tests in the solar system are satisfied. This opens up several decades in length scale and classes of galaxies at low redshift that can be exploited by surveys. While theoretical work on models of gravity is in the early stages, we can already identify new regimes that cosmological surveys could target to test gravity. These include: (i) a small-scale component that focuses on the interior and vicinity of galaxy and cluster halos, (ii) spectroscopy of low-redshift galaxies, especially galaxies smaller than the Milky Way, in environments that range from voids to clusters, and (iii) a programme of combining lensing and dynamical information, from imaging and spectroscopic surveys, respectively, on the same (or statistically identical) sample of galaxies.     

原子磁力仪在异常作用力及类轴子暗物质探测中的应用

简述了异常相互作用力及类轴子暗物质的理论模型,回顾了近年来国内外研究人员使用原子磁力仪和共磁力仪等进行自旋相关的非磁性力探测和暗物质搜寻的技术方案,归纳了迄今为止对自旋和速度相关相互作用、自旋引力相互作用、类轴子暗物质场梯度与核子的耦合强度的探测结果。在此基础上,本文对该领域未来的发展方向进行了展望,通过分析和抑制系统误差、寻找新的探测方案等方法,有望为自旋相关相互作用的耦合参数空间提供更严格的约束,在更广泛的质量范围内对类轴子暗物质与标准模型费米子的耦合给出更严格的界定。     

Measurement and calculation of plasma drag force in arc welding based on high-speed photography technology and particle dynamics

To investigate the plasma drag force acting on the droplet in gas metal arc welding (GMAW), we used a high-speed photography system to image the metal transfer process, and proposed a method employing particle dynamics to measure the plasma drag force. Experimental results of the droplet diameter, mass, acceleration, plasma drag force and gravity acting on the droplet are presented. The results indicate that, with the increase of welding current, the droplet diameter, mass and gravity decrease, the droplet acceleration and plasma pressure increase, while the plasma drag force and the gravity acting on the droplet decrease. Moreover, we find that the plasma drag force is 10 and near 100 times the gravity acting on the droplet. The experimental values of plasma drag force and plasma pressure show good agreement with the theoretical value by fluid theory; their order of magnitudes are 10^− 4 N and 10³ Pa, respectively, which demonstrates that it is an effective method to analyze the plasma drag force of welding arc.     

The Standard Model

The Standard Model is the theory used to describe the interactions between fundamental particles and fundamental forces. It is remarkably successful at predicting the outcome of particle physics experiments. However, the theory has not yet been completely verified. In particular, one of the most vital constituents, the Higgs boson, has not yet been observed. This paper describes the Standard Model, the experimental tests of the theory that have led to its acceptance and its shortcomings.     

Simulating the formation of cosmic structure

A timely combination of new theoretical ideas and observational discoveries has brought about significant advances in our understanding of cosmic evolution. Computer simulations have played a key role in these developments by providing the means to interpret astronomical data in the context of physical and cosmological theory. In the current paradigm, our Universe has a flat geometry, is undergoing accelerated expansion and is gravitationally dominated by elementary particles that make up cold dark matter. Within this framework, it is possible to simulate in a computer the emergence of galaxies and other structures from small quantum fluctuations imprinted during an epoch of inflationary expansion shortly after the Big Bang. The simulations must take into account the evolution of the dark matter as well as the gaseous processes involved in the formation of stars and other visible components. Although many unresolved questions remain, a coherent picture for the formation of cosmic structure is now beginning to emerge.     

Incorporating intelligent speed adaptation systems into microscopic traffic models

Intelligent speed adaptation (ISA) systems are incorporated here into microscopic traffic models; Gipps? car-following model is discussed and the appropriate model parameters that need to be modified and additional ones that may need to be introduced are investigated. Driver behaviour under three different functionalities of ISA, namely informative, warning and intervening, is investigated through a driver simulator experiment. The impact of ISA systems on driver behaviour is a complex matter because it varies both among drivers and under different scenarios. The main parameters that capture the `reaction? to the system are identified and are quantified through model parameters. These are driver speed, acceleration, deceleration, reaction time and effective size of the vehicle, and are estimated following the analysis of the simulator data. The resulting values confirm the necessity of parameter modification. The analysis performed for the incorporation of ISA into the traffic model indicated that a prerequisite of successful implementation is a deep understanding of the model parameters and dynamics.     

Receptive Capacity of Established Industries as a Limiting Factor in the Economy's Rate of Innovation¹

Although scholars and policy makers have widely acknowledged the importance of so-called high-technology industries as drivers of economic change, they have paid insufficient attention to the interaction between high-tech sectors and the remainder of the economy in developed countries. We contend that any constructive view of economic change must recognize the importance of the diffusion of innovative products and processes to the economy as a whole through the role that firms in established sectors play as customers and suppliers for high-tech firms. It is important to insure that the ""Receptive Capacity' that these firms bring to innovative situations is as high as possible. To demonstrate our point, we first use ""old' growth theory to develop a model of economic change and then show how this model ties in with ""new' ' growth theory by providing a convincing justification for investment in R&D and other innovative activities.     

Golden Rice and technology adoption theory: A study of seed choice dynamics among rice growers in the Philippines

Golden Rice (GR) is a much-debated transgenic crop. Many commentaries and economic analyses have assumed that, if and when the new GR varieties are released, the grains will automatically find their way onto the plates of children in especially poor families who are at risk of vitamin A deficiency (VAD). But many of these families are not rice growers or are unlikely to adopt the varieties into which the transgenic trait has been bred. This raises the neglected question addressed in this paper: How likely is it that commercial rice growers will choose to plant GR varieties? To examine this question, we draw upon and contribute to a wider literature on what drives farmers’ seed selection practices. Seed choice has been a frequent case in the elaboration of technology adoption theory. We apply a recently proposed tripartite model of learning, and present new survey data to shed light on the dynamics of seed choice and variety replacement rates among rice farmers in two sites in Nueva Ecija, Luzon, the Philippines. We compare our findings with previous research on the seed choices of Indian cotton and rice farmers in Warangal, Telangana, India. Seed choices in Nueva Ecija show a moderate degree of faddishness and herding behaviour, and the varieties in which the GR trait are expected to be available have declined in popularity. Farmers here show a modest and variable susceptibility to persuasion by external parties that seek to promote specific rice varieties. Our study suggests that commercial rice farmers may not choose to plant GR varieties unless they are offered specific inducements to do so.     

Using Superconducting Magnet to Reproduce Quick Variations of Gravity in Liquid Oxygen

A ground based facility (OLGA), providing magnetic compensation of gravity in oxygen, has been developed. A 2-T superconducting magnetic solenoid is used to create the required magnetic field. A novel electrical supply permits to quickly vary the magnetic field, leading to rapid variation of the acceleration forces applied to oxygen. These variations can be made from overcompensation of gravity (−0.5g) to zero gravity or from zero gravity to reduced gravity (0.4g) with a time constant of 340 ms. This time is typical of the cutoff or reignition of spacecraft engines. Preliminary results on the transient flows induced by these acceleration variations in a reservoir filled with liquid and gaseous oxygen are presented.     

The Density Difference of Cupula and Endolymph Changes the Mechanics of Semicircular Canals

A precise balance of cupula and endolymph densities is key to the proper sensing of angular acceleration by the semicircular canals (SC). Estimates show that a density difference of cupula and endolymph (DD) as small as ~10^− 4 g/cm³ is sufficient to make the SC sensitive to gravity and centrifugal forces provided they are comparable with gravity. As a result this might cause vestibular disorders. There are conditions under which the DD may even exceed this value. One of them is a change of intra-labyrinth pressure (IP) that may take place during a spaceflight. Here, the effect of DD on SC dynamics is considered using a simplified one-dimensional toroidal mathematical model of a canal for rotation with constant or harmonically oscillating angular velocities. The DD results in: dependence of cupula dynamics on orientation of both the gravity vector relative to the SC plane and the axis of rotation, as well as on the distance between the axis of rotation and the center of SC; shift of the cupula to a new position of equilibrium that depends on both the gravity vector and the parameters of head rotation; and onset of cupula oscillations with multiple frequencies under harmonic stimulation. The DD effect may be important under conditions of artificial gravity where the directions of centrifugal forces, the values of which are comparable with Earth’s gravity, the orientations of the axis of rotation of a space station, and the axes of the SCs change during movements of the individuals and their habitat.