Attributions of intentions and fairness judgments regarding interracial peer encounters.

To investigate how adolescents interpret ambiguous actions in hypothetical interracial peer encounters, we conducted a study in which 8th- and 11th-grade students (N = 837) evaluated 4 interracial peer encounters in which the intentions of the protagonist were ambiguous. The sample was evenly divided by gender and included both African American and European American adolescents. European American students, male adolescents, and 8th graders were more likely to attribute negative intentions to the protagonist in interracial exchanges than were African American students, female adolescents, and 11th graders. Although all participants viewed peer and teacher accusations of wrongdoing in ambiguous situations as unfair, ethnic minority students as well as female adolescents rated accusations of wrongdoing as more unfair than did ethnic majority or male adolescents. Eleventh graders were more likely to view accusations of wrongdoing for protagonists with a prior history of transgression as fair than were 8th graders. The findings are discussed in light of efforts to reduce prejudice and to facilitate positive intergroup peer interactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Classroom social climate and student absences and grades.

Investigated the relationship between student and teacher perceptions of the social environments of 19 high school classes and student absenteeism rates and the average final grades given by the teacher. 19 classes of high school students were administered the Classroom Environment Scale. Results show that classes with high absenteeism rates were seen as high in competition and teacher control and low in teacher support. Classes in which teachers gave higher average grades were seen as high in involvement and low in teacher control. Results are discussed in light of their implications for understanding the differential effects of classes, as well as for identifying and changing high-risk classroom environments. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interracial attitudes and behavior at a summer camp.

Studied interracial attitudes and behavior during a series of week-long sessions at a summer camp. The camp involved prolonged, intimate contact between 92 Black and 104 White children of equal status. The situation was structured so that each living unit had a Black and a White counselor and equal numbers of Black and White campers. Measures of racial attitudes and behavior included a verbal attitude assessment, a series of interpersonal choices, and an analysis of photographs taken by the Ss. All 3 measures showed some significant and positive changes. Consistent with other studies, males generally showed more positive interracial attitudes and behavior than females. As a consequence of the elevated pretest scores of males, only females showed significant changes in attitudes and interpersonal choices. Possible rival hypotheses for the obtained changes are analyzed and rejected, and it is suggested that intergroup attitudes and behavior depend on the relative power and status of the groups in the social situation within which they interact. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Environmental perceptions of students in same-sex and coeducational physical education classes.

Although class climate has been studied in relation to same-sex or coeducational schools and academic classroom environments, physical education presents a unique situation not frequently examined in this regard. Middle and high school students' perceptions of the environment were examined following their participation in a basketball unit. Results indicated that same-sex and coeducational physical education classes revealed quite different climates, although boys and girls in the same coeducational classes generally viewed their environments in a similar manner. Overall, girls' same-sex classes were perceived most favorably, whereas boys' same-sex classes were perceived least favorably. However, climate was viewed differently by girls and boys depending on whether they were perceiving the class as a whole or from the perspective of their own gender. In addition, teacher gender was not a factor in the results. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of actual and preferred Classroom Environment Scales in person–environment fit research.

Used the Classroom Environment Scale (CES) to aid in investigating the person–environment fit hypotheses of whether the relationship between achievement and actual classroom environment varies with the environment preferences of the class. Students in 116 8th and 9th grade science classes were the Ss. Achievement on several cognitive and affective outcome measures was related to interactions between the actual classroom environment and that preferred by the class. Regression surface analyses revealed numerous cases in which the actual–preferred interaction on a CES scale accounted for a significant amount of criterion variance beyond that attributable to corresponding pretest, general ability, and actual environment. In each case, the person–environment interaction was supported in that the relationship between achievement and an actual environment dimension was more positive for classes whose students had a higher preference for that dimension than in classes whose students had a lower preference. (57 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Award for Distinguished Scientific Early Career Contributions to Psychology: Jennifer A. Richeson.

Jennifer A. Richeson, winner of the Award for Distinguished Scientific Early Career Contributions to Psychology, is cited for creative and sophisticated investigations of the psychological and neural underpinnings of prejudice, discrimination, and intergroup relations. Considering the perspectives of both minority and majority group members, Richeson has produced new insights into the psychological dynamics that unfold within the crucible of interracial interactions. Her analysis identifies and synthesizes basic attentional, self-regulatory, and motivational processes critical in shaping the quality and quantity of intergroup contact. In addition to the citation, a biography and selected bibliography of Richeson's work are presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

External intergroup threat as an antecedent to perceptions in in-group and out-group homogeneity.

The present research examined the relationship between external intergroup threat and perceptions of group variability. The first study found that when Texas A&M University students worked on a task in which students from a rival university were allegedly biased against them, they perceived more intragroup similarities versus differences than in an out-group benevolent condition and a control condition, and they also perceived the self as more similar to the in-group and more different from the out-group. These results were replicated in a second study, which used the same methodology except that the benevolent condition was excluded. The findings are discussed in terms of different reactions that individuals have to internal and external intergroup threat. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does Class Size in First Grade Relate to Children's Academic and Social Performance or Observed Classroom Processes?

This study evaluated the extent to which first-grade class size predicted child outcomes and observed classroom processes for 651 children (in separate classrooms). Analyses examined observed child-adult ratios and teacher-reported class sizes. Smaller classrooms showed higher quality instructional and emotional support, although children were somewhat less likely to be engaged. Teachers in smaller classes rated typical children in those classes as more socially skilled and as showing less externalizing behavior and reported more closeness toward them. Children in smaller classes performed better on literacy skills. Larger classrooms showed more group activities directed by the teacher, teachers and children interacted more often, and children were more often engaged. Lower class sizes were not of more benefit (or harm) as a function of the child's family income. First-grade class size in the range typical of present-day classrooms in the United States predicts classroom social and instructional processes as well as relative changes in social and literacy outcomes from kindergarten to first grade. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of classroom quality in ameliorating the academic and social risks associated with difficult temperament.

The present study examines the moderating role first grade classroom quality may have on the relations between children's difficult temperament (assessed in infancy) and their academic and social outcomes in early elementary school (first grade). Using data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development's Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, 1032 children were rated by their mothers at 6 months of age on difficult temperament. The quality of first grade classroom environments were then observed and rated along three domains: emotional support, classroom organization, and instructional support. Regression analyses examined the statistical interactions between difficult temperament and classroom quality domains on children's academic and social outcomes. Results indicate high-quality classroom environments may ameliorate the academic and social risks associated with having a difficult temperament. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Can imagined interactions produce positive perceptions?: Reducing prejudice through simulated social contact.

The contact hypothesis states that, under the right conditions, contact between members of different groups leads to more positive intergroup relations. The authors track recent trends in contact theory to the emergence of extended, or indirect, forms of contact. These advances lead to an intriguing proposition: that simply imagining intergroup interactions can produce more positive perceptions of outgroups. The authors discuss empirical research supporting the imagined contact proposition and find it to be an approach that is at once deceptively simple and remarkably effective. Encouraging people to mentally simulate a positive intergroup encounter leads to improved outgroup attitudes and reduced stereotyping. It curtails intergroup anxiety and extends the attribution of perceivers’ positive traits to others. The authors describe the advantages and disadvantages of imagined contact compared to conventional strategies, outline an agenda for future research, and discuss applications for policymakers and educators in their efforts to encourage more positive intergroup relations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The classroom as learning context: Changing rooms affects performance.

Studied the role of the classroom as a context that can affect memory, using a multiple time-series design. Two classes of 25 undergraduates each were given weekly quizzes in their regular classroom over a baseline period, were moved to a different room on separate target weeks, and finally were returned to their classroom. Moving had a significant deleterious effect, particularly on students doing well in the course. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Classroom environments and the stratification of pupils' ability perceptions.

Rosenholtz and Simpson have suggested that the task structures, ability grouping practices, and evaluation practices present in a classroom are important determinants of the degree to which children's ability perceptions become stratified within the classroom. The effects of classroom practices on stratification of pupils' self-perceptions of math ability were estimated in 67 upper elementary math classes from schools in predominantly White, middle-income communities. The results suggest that the effects of task structure depend on the "talent dispersion" (actual dispersion of ability levels) in the class. In classes in which talent dispersion was high, differentiated task structures were associated with lower levels of stratification than were undifferentiated task structures. This effect disappeared in classes in which talent dispersion was low. The dispersion of report cards grades, but not the frequency and emphasis of grading, was positively related to stratification. The implications of the results for educational theory and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

铜溶剂萃取过程界面乳化的原因分析

为查清紫金山铜矿溶剂萃取铜过程界面乳化的原因，采用X射线衍射和界面张力等现代分析检测手段，考察了铜溶剂萃取过程中固体微粒的组成和来源以及不同pH值条件下不同种类的固体微粒对有机相，水相间界面张力的影响。研究表明，固体微粒是界面乳化的主要诱因，由于固体微粒对有机溶剂具有吸附作用，从而使界面张力降低，导致乳化液的形成和稳定。     

Influence of long-term racial environmental composition on subjective well-being in African Americans.

Two studies (N=126, N=114) of African Americans supported a model predicting that more racially segregated life contexts are associated with feelings of acceptance by other in-group members and, to a lesser extent, rejection by outgroup members. In-group acceptance and out-group rejection in turn influenced identification with the in-group, which was a strong predictor of psychological well-being. Alternative models were not supported. Results suggest that environments that are segregated offer in-group support and acceptance, thereby protecting self-esteem against possible perils of rejection by a powerful out-group. Findings suggest that the improvement of intergroup relations should not be at the expense of intragroup relations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

(Close) distance makes the heart grow fonder: Improving implicit racial attitudes and interracial interactions through approach behaviors.

In 4 studies, the authors examined the effect of approaching Blacks on implicit racial attitudes and immediacy behaviors. In Studies 1-3, participants were trained to pull a joystick toward themselves or to push it away from themselves when presented with photographs of Blacks, Whites, or Asians before completing an Implicit Association Test to measure racial bias. In Study 4, the effect of this training procedure on nonverbal behavior in an interracial contact situation was investigated. Results from the studies demonstrated that approaching Blacks decreased participants' implicit racial prejudice and increased immediacy when interacting with a Black confederate. The implications of these findings for current theories on approach, avoidance, and intergroup relations are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

In-group bias in the minimal intergroup situation: A cognitive-motivational analysis.

Experimental research on intergroup discrimination in favor of one's own group is reviewed in terms of the basis of differentiation between in-group and out-group and in terms of the response measure on which in-group bias is assessed. Results of the research reviewed suggest that (a) factors such as intergroup competition, similarity, and status differentials affect in-group bias indirectly by influencing the salience of distinctions between in-group and out-group, (b) the degree of intergroup differentiation on a particular response dimension is a joint function of the relevance of intergroup distinctions and the favorableness of the in-group's position on that dimension, and (c) the enhancement of in-group bias is more related to increased favoritism toward in-group members than to increased hostility toward out-group members. Implications of these results for positive applications of group identification (e.g., a shift of in-group bias research from inter- to intragroup contexts) are discussed. (67 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ontogenetic changes in the comprehension and production of vervet monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops) vocalizations.

Factors underlying the development of the East African vervet monkeys' intergroup wrr vocalization were examined. Infants produced the intergroup wrr in appropriate social contexts between 10–28 months, but the acoustic morphology of this call differed significantly from those produced by adults. Auditory and social experience affected the age at which infants produced adult-like exemplars of the call, as well as the age at which they comprehended the call's meaning. Although the developmental time course for the production of intergroup wrrs is gradual, young infants (birth to 3 months) produce a wrr-like call in the context of distress which appears to be articulated in a more adult-like manner than older infants. It is hypothesized that maturational changes in vocal morphology, increasing motoric control and experience are important factors in the ontogeny of nonhuman primate vocal communication. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perspective taking combats automatic expressions of racial bias.

Five experiments investigated the hypothesis that perspective taking—actively contemplating others' psychological experiences—attenuates automatic expressions of racial bias. Across the first 3 experiments, participants who adopted the perspective of a Black target in an initial context subsequently exhibited more positive automatic interracial evaluations, with changes in automatic evaluations mediating the effect of perspective taking on more deliberate interracial evaluations. Furthermore, unlike other bias-reduction strategies, the interracial positivity resulting from perspective taking was accompanied by increased salience of racial inequalities (Experiment 3). Perspective taking also produced stronger approach-oriented action tendencies toward Blacks (but not Whites; Experiment 4). A final experiment revealed that face-to-face interactions with perspective takers were rated more positively by Black interaction partners than were interactions with nonperspective takers—a relationship that was mediated by perspective takers' increased approach-oriented nonverbal behaviors (as rated by objective, third-party observers). These findings indicate that perspective taking can combat automatic expressions of racial biases without simultaneously decreasing sensitivity to ongoing racial disparities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does math self-efficacy mediate the effect of the perceived classroom environment on standardized math test performance?

We examined the effect of the perceived classroom environment on math self-efficacy and the effect of math self-efficacy on standardized math test performance. Upper elementary school students (N = 1,163) provided self-reports of their perceived math self-efficacy and the degree to which their math classroom environment was mastery oriented, challenging, and caring. Individual student scores on the California Standards Test for Mathematics were also collected. A series of 2-level models revealed that students who perceived their classroom environments as more caring, challenging, and mastery oriented had significantly higher levels of math self-efficacy, and higher levels of math self-efficacy positively predicted math performance. Analysis of the indirect effects of classroom variables on math performance indicated a small significant mediating effect of self-efficacy. Implications for research on self-efficacy and the perceived classroom environment are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Defining dimensions of distinctiveness: Group variability makes a difference to differentiation.

We tested the prediction, derived from an integration of social identity and self-categorization principles, that the relation between in-group distinctiveness and positive differentiation is curvilinear. Moderate distinctiveness is argued to provide the critical combination of intergroup difference (self-categorization theory) and intergroup similarity ( social identity theory ) to elicit intergroup differentiation. Intergroup distance (differences in group central tendencies) and group variability were manipulated orthogonally, resulting in different levels of intergroup distinctiveness (low, intermediate, and high). In line with predictions, in-group bias and positive differentiation were greatest, for both minimal and natural groups, when the combination of group variability and intergroup distance produced intermediate levels of group distinctiveness. The potential of this integrative model to account for disparate findings is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)