The environmental response of hybrid composites

Hybrid composite specimens containing a total of 60 or 75 vol % of unidirectional fibre were prepared from HT S-carbon fibre and E-glass fibre, HT S-carbon fibre and Kevlar 49 fibre, and E-glass fibre and Kevlar 49 fibre with a standard anhydride cured epoxide resin. The specimens were divided into four groups and subjected to the following environments: (A) room temperature and humidity; (B) soaked in water for 300 h at 95° C and then oven dried at 60° C to a constant weight; (C) thermally cycled 100 times between –196 and 95° C; (D) cycled 35 times between –196 and water at 95° C. The flexural properties of the samples were measured at room temperature after exposure. The modulus of the hybrid materials was not significantly affected by any of the treatments, although thermal cycling with or without water caused a large decrease in the modulus of all Kevlar fibre/resin and to a lesser extent all glass fibre specimens. The flexural strength of the unexposed carbon fibre/glass fibre and glass fibre/Kevlar fibre hybrids showed a positive deviation from the rule of mixtures behaviour at low volume loadings of the lower extension fibre. Wet thermal cycling or soaking in water caused a substantial reduction in the flexural strength of glass fibre/Kevlar fibre specimens. The interlaminar shear strength of all three fibre combinations was not affected by dry thermal cycling, but the effects of soaking in water and especially thermal cycling with water exposure were significant and irreversible.     

Temperature dependence of lifetime statistics for single Kevlar 49 filaments in creep-rupture

Experimental data are presented for the strength and lifetime under constant stress of single Kevlar 49 aramid filaments at two elevated temperatures, 80 and 130° C. As seen in previously published work performed at room temperature (21 °C), the strength data could be fitted to a two-parameter Weibull distribution; increasing the temperature caused a decrease in the Weibull scale parameter while the shape parameter remained relatively constant, indicating a decrease in the mean strength but no change in strength variability. Lifetime experiments at both 80 and 130°C were performed at different filament stress levels, ranging from 55 to 92.5% of the Weibull scale parameter for short-term strength at that temperature. These data were fitted to a two-parameter Weibull distribution with large variability (scale parameter values 1), and evaluated using an exponential kinetic breakdown model in the spirit of Eyring and Zhurkov. Using this model, activation energies in the neighbourhood of 80 kcal mol^–1 (3.35 × 105 J mol^–1 ) were obtained, suggesting that scission of the C-N bond plays the dominant role in fibre failure at longer times under constant stress.Kevlar and Kevlar 49 are registered tardemarks of E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc.     

Kevlar缝线表面处理对炭纤维/双马来酰亚胺树脂缝合复合材料界面性能的影响

为了改善Kevlar缝线缝合复合材料的耐湿热性能, 采用化学接枝烯丙基的方法对Kevlar缝合线进行表面改性处理。通过力学测试、 扫描电子显微镜(SEM)、 光电子能谱分析(XPS)对表面改性的纤维进行表征。实验结果表明, 化学处理的Kevlar缝线表面变得粗糙, 缝线表面氧元素的含量提高23%, 在合适的处理条件下, 缝线的拉伸强度降低很小。同时通过测试干、 湿态下炭纤维/双马来酰亚胺树脂缝合复合材料层压板的层间剪切强度, 研究了化学表面处理的Kevlar缝线对缝合炭纤维/双马来酰亚胺树脂复合材料界面性能的影响。测试结果显示, 表面处理后Kevlar缝线缝合的复合材料的吸湿率降低约52%, 湿态层间剪切强度保持率提高15%。      

Thermal degradation of the mode I interlaminar fracture properties of stitched glass fibre/vinyl ester composites

Changes to the Mode I interlaminar fracture toughness, GIc, and fracture mechanisms of stitched and unstitched fibreglass/vinyl ester composites were investigated after exposure to elevated temperatures. The fibreglass was stitched through the thickness with Kevlar®-49 thread in two orientations with two stitch densities, and then resin transfer moulded with a cold-curing vinyl ester resin. After curing at room temperature (20°C) for several weeks, the composites were heated to between 100 and 300°C for 1 h or at 175°C for times ranging from 0.25–100 h. The GIc values, which were measured using the double cantilever beam method, of stitched composites in the cold-cured condition were between 1.5 and 2.3 times higher than the unstitched composite. It was observed with scanning electron microscopy that this toughening occurred by deflection of the crack tip at the stitches, by the ability of the stitches to remain intact for a short distance (7–15 mm) behind the crack front, and by partial pull-out of broken stitches. The interlaminar fracture toughness of the unstitched composite increased slightly following heating, despite a possible breakdown of the chemical structure of the vinyl ester between 150 and 300°C. In contrast, the interlaminar toughness of the stitched composites was degraded significantly by heating, and this was probably caused by thermal deterioration of the Kevlar® stitches. This study reveals that the elevated-temperature post-curing of stitched composites will reduce the effectiveness of Kevlar® stitching in raising the Mode I interlaminar fracture toughness. © 1998 Chapman & Hall     

Hybrid multi-scale epoxy composite made of conventional carbon fiber fabrics with interlaminar regions containing electrospun carbon nanofiber mats

Herein we report the development and evaluation of hybrid multi-scale epoxy composite made of conventional carbon fiber fabrics with interlaminar regions containing mats of electrospun carbon nanofibers (ECNs). The results indicated that (1) the interlaminar shear strength and flexural properties of hybrid multi-scale composite were substantially higher than those of control/comparison composite without ECNs; in particular, the interlaminar shear strength was higher by ∼86%; and (2) the electrical conductivities in both in-plane and out-of-plane directions were enhanced through incorporation of ECNs, while the enhancement of out-of-plane conductivity (∼150%) was much larger than that of in-plane conductivity (∼20%). To validate the data reduction procedure, a new shear stress formula was formulated for composite laminates, which took into account the effect of layup and inter-layers. The study suggested that ECNs could be utilized for the development of high-performance composites, particularly with the improved out-of-plan properties (e.g., interlaminar shear strength).     

LiCl处理对芳纶纤维表面结构与性能的影响

为提高芳纶纤维与复合材料基体间的界面强度,首先,使用LiCl乙醇溶液处理芳纶纤维一定时间;然后,对LiCl处理芳纶纤维表面的化学组成、微观形貌、单丝拉伸强度及芳纶纤维/环氧树脂复合材料的界面性能等进行了测试分析。结果表明:使用LiCl乙醇溶液处理芳纶纤维后,芳纶纤维表面的含氮官能团含量增加;处理后,芳纶纤维表面有刻蚀出的沟槽,表面粗糙度增大,进而改善了芳纶纤维与环氧树脂基体的界面粘接性能,使芳纶纤维/环氧树脂复合材料的层间剪切强度由处理前的21.75 MPa提升到37.98 MPa;最佳处理时间为3~4 h,而处理时间过长会导致芳纶纤维的单丝拉伸强度及复合材料的层间剪切强度下降。所得结论证实使用LiCl处理芳纶纤维是一种有效的表面改性方法。      

The thermal conductivity of Kevlar fibre-reinforced composites

The thermal conductivities of a series of blocks consisting of Shell DX210/BF₃400 resin reinforced with Kevlar 49 fibre are reported in the approximate temperature range 180–270 K. The results are used to calculate the thermal conductivities of the fibres in directions parallel and perpendicular to their length. Varying the angle between the principal fibre directions of bidirectional laminates produced in-plane results that varied in a manner which was quantitatively consistent with expectation. The out-of-plane results proved to be independent of fibre orientation, as expected. In-plane and out-of-plane results for a Kevlar 49 fabric reinforced laminate proved to be essentially similar to results for a laminate reinforced with unwoven fibres of the same type, arranged in a 90° cross-plied disposition at the same fibre volume density.     

Type ÉM2-15 vibration magnetometer for measuring the magnetic saturation moment of ferromagnetic specimens

Conclusion The type ÉM2-15 vibration magnetometer that has been developed makes it possible to measure the magnetic saturation moment of ferromagnetic specimens in a magnetic field having a strength of 480 kA/m over a temperature range from –150 to +300° C. The maximum measuring error of the magnetic moments in the ranges from 10·10^–6 to 2000·10^–6 A·m² is no more than 3%. The temperature measuring error is ±2° C and the temperature is maintained within ±1° C at any point in the range.Translated from Izmeritel'naya Tekhnika, No. 5, pp. 61–63, May, 1975.     

Preparation and characterization of three-dimensional braided carbon/Kevlar/epoxy hybrid composites

Though unidirectional, short, and laminated hybrid composites have been extensively investigated because of their wider range of properties than non-hybrid composites, literature on three-dimensional (3-D) braided hybrid composites is very limited. In this work, Kevlar fibers were hybridized to carbon fibers to prepare 3-D carbon/Kevlar/epoxy composites with various carbon to Kevlar fiber volume ratios in an attempt to find alternative materials for osteosynthesis devices. The flexural, shear, and impact properties of the 3-D braided hybrid composites were measured in order to investigate the effect of carbon to Kevlar ratio and evaluate hybrid effects. In addition, residual flexural strength was tested for the impacted samples and the damage tolerance was assessed. Our experimental results revealed the existence of positive hybrid effects on the shear and flexural strengths flexural strain for the 3-D braided composites. The absorbed energy and flexural strength retention of the 3-D braided hybrid composites were found to decrease with relative carbon fiber content. It was shown that hybridizing ductile 3-D braided Kevlar fabric with stiff carbon fabric could result in the hybrid composites with flexural strength comparable to the all-carbon composite and impact damage tolerance superior to the all-Kevlar composite.     

Modal separation of work-of-fracture of carbon/carbon composites

Modal separation of work-of-fracture was carried out for unidirectional C/C composites in order to characterize their multi-modal fracture behavior. The C/C composites were prepared by filament winding method with a coal tar pitch as a matrix precursor, and followed by heat treatment at temperatures between 1000°C and 2800°C under argon flow. During single edge-notched beam tests, tensile fracture and interlaminar shear fracture were simultaneously observed in the specimens. In proportion to the fracture surface area, the total work done during fracture was divided into each fracture mode, and the modal work-of-fracture was obtained by dividing each modal dissipation energy by twice the corresponding modal fracture surface area. With increasing the heat treatment temperature, the modal work-of-fracture for the tensile mode gradually increased and reached a maximum of around 6 kJm^–2 at a heat treatment temperature of 2000°C, whereas the modal work-of-fracture for the interlaminar shear mode remained constant around 20 Jm^–2. Determination of these modal work-of-fracture values revealed quantitatively the contribution of each fracture mode to the total dissipation energy of the composites.     

基于灰色关联分析和响应面法的复合材料缠绕成型多目标工艺参数优化

针对复合材料预浸带缠绕过程中制品的残余应力、孔隙率最小化和层间剪切强度（ILSS）最大化的多目标优化问题,采用Box-Behnken Design （BBD）原理设计四因素三水平的T300/环氧树脂预浸带缠绕实验;基于灰色关联分析（GRA）将多目标优化问题转化为单目标优化问题,利用主成分分析（PCA）法确定残余应力、孔隙率和ILSS对灰色关联度（GRG）的影响权重;通过对实验数据的回归分析,建立GRG与主要缠绕工艺参数（缠绕温度、张力、压辊压力和缠绕速度）的二阶预测模型;分析了各工艺参数对残余应力、孔隙率、ILSS和GRG的影响规律,确定缠绕工艺参数优化方案;利用响应面法（RSM）求解工艺参数优化问题并进行复合材料预浸带缠绕实验。结果表明:该优化方法获得的最优工艺参数组合可以有效改善残余应力、孔隙率和ILSS,提高预浸带缠绕制品的性能。      

芳纶纤维的磷酸表面处理及其树脂基复合材料界面性能

采取不同浓度的磷酸水溶液对芳纶纤维进行表面处理, 并对不同处理条件下芳纶纤维的单丝强度、表面性质及其环氧树脂复合材料的界面性能进行了分析和测试。结果表明: 20 wt %磷酸溶液处理的芳纶纤维, 纤维表面含氧官能团含量最高; 继续提高磷酸溶液的浓度, 含氧官能团含量下降, 纤维表面趋于平整, 单丝强度上升。用20 wt %磷酸溶液处理芳纶纤维, 纤维/ 环氧树脂基复合材料的层间剪切强度达到62 MPa , 界面剪切强度提高18 % , 是一种简单有效的表面处理方法。纤维表面粗糙度和纤维表面含氧官能团的数量是影响芳纶纤维/ 环氧树脂复合材料界面结合性能的关键因素。      

Compressive and torsional behaviour of Kevlar 49 fibre

The mechanical anisotropy of an aromatic polyamide fibre, Kevlar 49, was studied in tension, compression and torsion. A new technique involved applying small and defined compressive strains to filaments by bonding them to one side of a beam which is subsequently bent to compress the fibres. Using scanning electron and optical microscopy, fibres were shown to form regularly-spaced helical kink bands at 50 to 60° to the fibre axis after the application of small axial compressive strains. Tensile tests of previously-compressed fibres revealed only a 10% loss in tensile strength, after application of as much as 3% compressive strain. A torsion pendulum apparatus was used to measure the shear modulus and an apparent shear strength of fibres. A loss of tensile strength after the application of large (> 10%) torsional shear strains coincided with a loss in recoverable shear strain due to longitudinal fibre splitting. Ratios of tensile-to-compressive strength, tensile-to-shear strength and tensile-to-shear moduli of 51, 171, and 701, respectively, were measured for Kevlar 49.     

Influence of water and accelerated aging on the shear fracture properties of glass/epoxy composite

The degradation of interlaminar shear strength and shear fracture toughness of glass/epoxy composites due to uptake of distilled water and sea water has been studied. The composites were immersed in water for up to eight months at temperatures up to 70 °C. Unreinforced matrix resin samples were also immersed for periods up to 2 years. Sea water was absorbed less rapidly than distilled water. Weight gains below 1% did not influence the shear strength while higher weight gains reduced shear strength up to 25%. The loss in apparent interlaminar shear strength was uniquely related to specimen weight gain. Mode II fracture toughness, G _IIc, also decreased with increasing immersion time after an initial incubation period, but the accelerated tests were found to reduce G _IIc less than the room temperature tests at comparable weight gains.     

Thermoplastic matrix continuous filament composites of Kevlar® aramid or graphite fiber

Key static mechanical properties and laminating processes of thermoplastic matrix continuous filament composites reinforced with Kevlar® aramid or graphite fibers are presented and discussed. A tow of Kevlar or graphite impregnated with a thermoplastic matrix from a proprietary melt-coating process involving injection of a melted thermoplastic polymer can be consolidated into a sound, void-free composite laminate by compression molding. The unidirectional composites of Kevlar 49 or graphite from the melt-coated tows possess mechanical properties superior to those of similar composites prepared by other processes such as yarn cowinding and film laminating. The unidirectional composites of Kevlar 49 with thermoplastic matrices prepared from the melt-coated tows are equivalent or superior to those using Epon® epoxies or polyvinylester in flexural, shear and compressive strengths. Using J-polymer, a polyamide copolymer and a proprietary Du Pont resin candidate as a thermoplastic matrix model, a static mechanical test data base has been developed for graphite/thermoplastic matrix composites showing significant advantages in damage tolerance, compression after impact, and interlaminar fracture toughness. Although the unidirectional compressive strength of graphite/epoxy composites has been shown to correlate with matrix modulus, the thermoplastic matrix composites show no such correlation.     

标距和应变率对Kevlar49单束拉伸力学性能的影响

为探究Kevlar 49单束的尺寸效应及应变率敏感性, 首先, 利用MTS万能试验机对不同标距(25、50、100、150、200和300 mm)的Kevlar 49单束进行了准静态(应变率为1/600 s-1)拉伸测试; 然后, 利用Instron落锤冲击系统对标距为25 mm的试样进行了动态(应变率为40~160 s-1)拉伸测试; 最后, 利用Weibull模型进行统计分析, 量化了不同标距和应变率下Kevlar 49单束拉伸强度的随机变化程度。结果表明: Kevlar 49单束的拉伸力学性能与标距和应变率有相关性; 拉伸强度随标距的增加而减小, 但随应变率的增加而增大; 峰值应变和韧性均随标距和应变率的增加而减小; 提取的Weibull参数可用于数值模拟及工程应用。      

Electron irradiation effects on interlaminar shear strength of glass or carbon cloth reinforced epoxy composites

Interlaminar tensile shear tests are conducted to study the degradation mechanisms of electron irradiated glass or carbon cloth reinforced epoxy laminates. Interlaminar shear strength decreases significantly after the dose exceeds 3000 Mrad for glass/epoxy, but remains constant up to 12 000 Mrad for carbon/epoxy. SEM photos reveal that debonding of glass fibres and epoxy matrix (or degradation of silane coupling agents) plays an important role in the dose-dependent strength reduction of glass/epoxy laminates. The decrease in the interlaminar shear strength corresponds to that in the three-point bending strength. On the other hand, the SEM fracture appearance is almost dose-independent for carbon/epoxy laminates. In addition, some preliminary irradiation tests are conducted at –120° C to observe the effects of irradiation temperatures.     

单向连续碳纤维-玻璃纤维层间混杂增强环氧树脂基复合材料的力学性能

为了研究连续单向纤维的层间混杂方式对复合材料力学性能及破坏方式的影响,采用碳纤维-玻璃纤维体积比为1∶1,以拉-挤成型法制备了具有不同层间混杂结构的连续单向纤维增强环氧树脂基复合材料,并研究了不同层间混杂结构的连续单向碳纤维-玻璃纤维增强环氧树脂基复合材料的力学性能及破坏形式。结果表明：具有层间混杂结构的复合材料抗拉强度处于纯碳纤维/环氧树脂复合材料和纯玻璃纤维/环氧树脂复合材料之间,复合材料的拉伸断裂方式为劈裂;具有层间混杂结构的复合材料的层间剪切强度均优于纯碳纤维/环氧树脂复合材料和纯玻璃纤维/环氧树脂复合材料,复合材料的剪切断裂方式为层间断裂。     

Interlaminar shear properties of polymer matrix composites: Strain rate effect

Studies are carried out on interlaminar shear behavior of typical polymer matrix composites under high strain rate shear loading. Torsional split Hopkinson bar (TSHB) apparatus is used for the studies in the shear strain rate range of 496–1000/s. Experimental details, specimen configuration and development, data acquisition and processing are presented. Interlaminar shear strength and shear modulus are presented as a function of shear strain rate. The results are presented for typical plain weave carbon/epoxy and plain weave E-glass/epoxy composites. For comparison, studies are presented at quasi-static loading. It is observed that the interlaminar shear strength at high strain rate is enhanced compared with that at quasi-static loading. Further, it is observed that the interlaminar shear strength increases with increasing shear strain rate within the range of shear strain rate considered.     

磷酸处理芳纶纤维的缠绕环氧树脂基体

在用磷酸(PA)溶液处理芳纶纤维的基础上, 系统研究了适用于制备高性能芳纶纤维增强复合材料的缠绕环氧树脂基体, 测试了复合材料的力学性能和热机械性能, 讨论了树脂基体对芳纶纤维增强复合材料界面性能的影响。结果表明: 经过磷酸溶液处理的芳纶纤维表面存在一定量的极性官能团, 与缩水甘油酯类环氧树脂有良好的界面相容性; 经过优化的树脂体系其芳纶纤维增强复合材料的NOL环(Naval Ordnance Laboratory Ring)纤维强度转化率达到95％, 层间剪切强度(ILSS)达到79MPa, 界面剪切强度(IFSS)达到76MPa, 具有较好的界面性能。