英国可再生能源义务法令介绍及实施效果分析

英国是采用可再生能源配额制度来促进可再生能源发展的国家之一。本文介绍了从2002年开始实施的英国可再生能源义务法令产生的背景、配额制度的主要特点和实施效果,对制度的优缺点进行了分析,说明配额制度的实施需要完善的电力市场机制做保障,它是有利于低成本的可再生能源技术的应用和有利于大企业发展的政策,但也存在增加融资难度、不公平竞争等问题。本文最后总结了该法令和配额制度对我国可再生能源政策制定的借鉴意义。     

可再生能源电力费用分摊政策研究

我国已初步建立了支持可再生能源电力发展的电价和费用分摊政策框架,有效地促进了可再生能源电力市场的蓬勃发展。本文从资金来源、使用范围、筹措支付等角度,对国内外费用分摊政策及实施进行对比分析,对我国现有政策实施面临的资金严重不足、税收、财务、效率等诸多问题进行剖析,并测算了近三年可再生能源电力补贴资金需求。在吸纳国际经验的基础上,提出通过基金管理方式实现可再生能源电力费用分摊,利用可再生能源电价附加、国家财政资金等多条渠道支持可再生能源电力发展的具体建议。     

关于在电力市场环境下建立和促进可再生能源发电价格体系的研究

本文介绍了在开放的竞争性电力市场环境下,制定和实施特殊的上网电价政策来促进可再生能源发电发展的国际经验,总结归纳了政策制定的基本原则、方法和典型的价格体系,对各类价格政策的实施效果以及对我国的适用性进行了分析。提出在竞争性电力市场环境下,采用特殊的价格政策和机制,可以起到鼓励可再生能源发电市场发展和带动技术进步、产业升级的效果。我国应吸取国外的成功经验,根据我国可再生能源电价政策的实施情况,对政策予以适时调整,完善价格政策体系。     

先进国家可再生能源发展补贴政策动向及对我国的启示

本文总结了具有国际可再生能源发展领先水平的代表性国家的可再生能源补贴政策机制及其最新动向。德国形成了成熟的固定电价降价机制和电价附加征收联动体系;丹麦采取以电力市场交易为基础的固定补贴制度;意大利最新的政策变化是非光伏项目逐渐实施固定电价政策替代配额制;美国沿用联邦税收抵免和可再生能源配额制。基于国际经验,提出对我国目前面临的可再生能源补贴资金不足问题的一些建议。     

论我国可再生能源配额制的法制建构

可再生能源配额制是推动可再生能源发展的有效制度,是实现可再生能源发展目标的量化、强制性以及与之配套的市场化措施。2006年制定的《可再生能源法》及2009年修改的《可再生能源法》已经为可再生能源配额制在我国立足生根营造制度环境。我国先后草拟可再生能源配额制的若干文件,但是迟迟未能完全落实。我国应当全面设计可再生能源配额义务的承担主体、配额分配机制、配额考核、监管以及基于配额制的绿色证书交易制度,从而保障我国可再生能源的可持续发展。     

中国可再生能源发展状况、展望及政策措施建议

2010年我国可再生能源步入全面规模化开发利用阶段,水电装机总量突破2亿kW,风电并网运营容量突破3000万kW,太阳能发电市场开始启动,生物质能多元化快速发展。但实现中长期战略发展目标的任务仍然艰巨。2011年,新可再生能源发展规划目标将出台,应着力完善可再生能源市场、价格、财税等政策,重点出台新能源配额制、落实可再生能源发电全额保障性收购制度,促进可再生能源电力尤其是风电的上网和消纳。     

绿色电力营销 可再生能源发展的市场动力

本文从分析中国可再生能源发展的障碍入手,指出现有电力销售机制及电价形成机制是可再生电力发展的瓶颈,也使得目前中国旨在促进可再生能源扩大规模、降低成本的政策无法得到有效的实施。根据迈克尔·波特的竞争战略理论,采用绿色电力营销的标歧立异战略,能帮助可再生能源发电产业在一定细分市场内建立相对于传统电力的竞争优势,同时也可克服现有电力销售机制的局限。一方面可再生电力与普通电力的差价由自愿购买的用户承担,避免每上一个可再生能源项目就需要提高全网电价的做法,是对现有体制的创新,同时也大大降低交易成本;另一方面差价取决于用户的支付意愿,差价越低,用户的支付意愿越高,市场越大;差价越高,支付意愿越低,市场越小,有利于形成竞争局面,促使可再生能源发电厂商降低发电成本。本文建议应当鼓励北京、上海等大城市的电力公司率先启动绿色电力营销计划,并为绿色电力营销创造良好的市场环境。     

基于双边拍卖的可再生能源配额制的绿色证书交易机制设计

针对电力市场可再生能源配额制下绿色证书交易机制设计问题,阐述了有限多个绿色证书出售方和购买方的决策优化问题,在绿色证书竞价规则的基础上,设计了一个具有激励相容的双边拍卖机制。结果表明,设计的拍卖机制满足绿色证书交易出清和交易规则,不仅能保证火电厂以最低的成本顺利完成规定的可再生能源配额义务,而且能够让具有成本优势的可再生能源发电厂生产更多的电力,提高了可再生能源开发的成本效益。最后通过算例验证了该机制的有效性和实用性。     

吸取国际经验探讨中国可再生能源电力强制性市场份额政策

我国可再生能源电力新政策的制定要以政策目标为核心。政策目标的确定，不但应结合国家的经济和能源发展需要，而且要适应可再生能源发电技术的发展规律。在今后二十年内，我国发展可再生电力将作为解决农村供能、特别是边远地区供电的主要手段，是     

可再生能源配额制(RPS)在中国应用探讨

我国政府近些年来一直积极探索以强制性手段保障可再生能源发展的有效机制。2003年可再生能源立法开始列入议程,这是我国可再生能源发展史上的一项重要举措。为可再生能源电力入网提供强制性保障机制是此次立法工作中初步设想的一项内容,引入可再生能源配额制(RPS)成为可供考虑的选择方案之一。如果引入,对该政策进行细致周密的设计和保证有效实施是至关重要的。文章重点探讨了RPS政策设计和管理中应注意的几个主要问题,包括确立适用范围和责任主体、制定可再生能源目标、确定有效的可再生能源种类、建立绿色证书制度、制定处罚措施等。期望本文能为我国建立可再生能源法律和政策体系提供相关信息。     

Learning from experience? The development of the Renewables Obligation in England and Wales 2002–2010

The UK has enviable renewable resources, both onshore (wind) and offshore (wind, wave and tidal) (The Offshore Valuation Group, 2010). The government has had policy mechanisms in place since 1990 to encourage these resources to be developed. The current mechanism, the Renewables Obligation (RO), was specifically designed to emphasise competition and therefore to fit in with the UK’s overall strategic approach to energy policy. However, as yet, it has not delivered the capacity that it was designed to do, and as a result the UK faces a difficult challenge in attempting to meet European-wide renewable energy targets for 2020, as well as longer term decarbonisation targets. This paper explores some of the major reasons why the RO has performed so poorly to date and considers the prospects for improvement up to 2020. It concludes that the strategic emphasis on competition in the support mechanisms has played a key role in limiting renewables development, but that the mechanism has changed significantly since it was introduced. However, these changes, together with proposals for electricity market reform, still do not address important elements of risk in comparison with a standard Feed In Tariff.     

Interactions and implications of renewable and climate change policy on UK energy scenarios

As a response to the twin challenges of climate change mitigation and energy security, the UK government has set a groundbreaking target of reducing the UK’s economy-wide carbon emissions by 80% from 1990 levels by 2050. A second key UK energy policy is to increase the share of final energy consumption from renewables sources to 15% by 2020, as part of the wider EU Renewable Directive. The UK’s principle mechanisms to meet this renewable target are the Renewable Obligation (RO) in the electricity sector, the Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation (RTFO), and most recently the Renewable Heat Programme (RHP) for buildings. This study quantifies a range of policies, energy pathways, and sectoral trade-offs when combining mid- and long-term UK renewables and CO₂ reduction policies. Stringent renewable policies are the binding constraints through 2020. Furthermore, the interactions between RO, RTFO, and RHP policies drive trade-offs between low carbon electricity, bio-fuels, high efficiency natural gas, and demand reductions as well as resulting 2020 welfare costs. In the longer term, CO₂ reduction constraints drive the costs and characteristics of the UK energy system through 2050.     

An over painted oriental arts: Evaluation of the development of the Chinese renewable energy market using the wind power market as a model

China is now the largest CO₂ polluter in the world. However, the renewable energy policies in China are controversial and one can easily draw the wrong conclusions that Chinese renewable energy development has taken off from a surface assessment of the policies. By investigating and summarizing the first-hand experiences of participation in the Chinese renewable market (mainly wind farm development) in the past five years, this paper provides another dimension of policy analysis and independent review of the current issues facing the market. An investigation of policy changes and consequences clearly demonstrates the transformation of the Chinese renewable market. The domestic manufacturing quality and unprofessional design of wind farms made most developers’ financial returns unrealistic in the wind market. Despite the difficulties and inconsistency in the system, China is tackling environmental issues seriously and heading in the right direction. With centrally controlled management, the Chinese strategies do not have to be justified financially. It is envisioned by the authors that re-organizing over 70 existing Chinese wind turbine manufacturers is unavoidable. Establishment of an internal renewable market, such as Renewable Obligation Certificate (ROC) system in the UK whose effectiveness is another subject of debate, would be an effective means by which the Chinese government in their post-2012 strategy could make the wind market more financially viable.     

Towards improved policy processes for promoting innovation in renewable electricity technologies in the UK

This paper analyses recent, current and potential future relations between policy processes and substantive outcomes in UK low carbon innovation policy, focussing on policies relating to renewable electricity generation technologies. It examines the development of policy processes relating to the adoption and implementation of the Renewables Obligation and how these may affect the current and likely future success of the Obligation in promoting low carbon innovation. It examines the new policy and institutional processes put in place in the 2003 Energy White Paper and argues that these are unlikely to provide the strategic long-term framework needed to realise the ambitious goals for UK energy policy set out in the White Paper. Finally, it outlines some suggestions for further development of policy processes to facilitate improved delivery of these goals, based on guiding principles for sustainable innovation policy processes, developed by the authors and their colleagues.     

Stuck between a ROC and a hard place? Barriers to the take up of green energy in the UK

This paper examines the UK mechanisms for ensuring future investment in renewable energy through consumer adoption of green energy tariffs and the Renewable Obligation Certificate (ROC) system. Using a national survey and focus groups the stated willingness by UK customers to pay a premium for renewable or green energy and actual take up of such tariffs is assessed. Substantial differences between willingness to pay for and the adoption of green energy tariffs are reported. This disparity is linked to a range of factors including consumer confusion, lack of supply, complexities of constructing ‘green source’ tariffs under the ROC system and a lack of customer trust. It is concluded that the re-definition of the green energy market in favour of ‘green source’ tariffs, greater direct compliance with the Renewable Obligation by addressing supply constraints, and efforts in providing clearer information and choices for consumers via a compulsory green energy accreditation scheme are required if willing consumers’ are to contribute to investment in renewable energy.     

Additional renewable energy growth through small-scale community orientated energy policies

This paper summarises the energy policies that the UK Government has enacted in order to achieve its renewable targets by 2010. Current policies are designed primarily to support large-scale renewable projects through Renewable Obligation Certificates, Levy Exemption Certificates and capital grant schemes. Non-profit domestic and non-profit community renewable projects are also eligible for grant support. First-hand experience of privately owned renewable projects indicate that existing renewable policy is insufficient in its support of both small-scale and community-based profit oriented renewable energy (RE) schemes. Primary and secondary survey information suggests that people living in regions where RE will be situated may generally be inclined to support broader uses of renewables in these regions. Small-scale renewables can make a significant cumulative contribution to the RE mix. The results reported in this paper support the contention that the Government could go further towards approaching its targets through rural-focused changes to its energy incentive programmes.     

Liberalisation of the UK energy market: An opportunity for green energy

1998 is a year of considerable change and opportunity for the energy sector in the UK, with government policy reviews of generation, renewables, utility regulation and climate change. In addition, the UK electricity market and gas markets will be opened up to full competition. This could boost renewable energy and the formation of Energy Services Companies as environmentally-aware consumers become able to choose ‘green’ energy from more progressive suppliers. Friends of the Earth has researched the environmental performance of the main electricity suppliers in the UK and the potential for consumer pressure. However, competition must exist within a framework of government regulation and additional support mechanisms if environmental and social objectives for the energy sector are to be met     

Opportunities and challenges for renewable energy policy in China

Renewable energy is the inevitable choice for sustainable economic growth, for the harmonious coexistence of human and environment as well as for the sustainable development. Government support is the key and initial power for developing renewable energy. In this article, an overall review has been conducted on renewable energy development policy (including laws and regulations, economic encouragement, technical research and development, industrialized support and government model projects, etc.) in China. On this basis, a systematic analysis has been conducted on the disadvantages of renewable energy development policy. On the point of long-term effective system for renewable energy development, a series of policy advice has been offered, such as strengthening the policy coordination, enhancing regional policy innovation, echoing with clean development mechanism, implementing process management, constructing market investment and financing system. It is expected that the above advices could be helpful to ever-improvement of renewable energy development policy.     

What lessons have been learned in reforming the Renewables Obligation? An analysis of internal and external failures in UK renewable energy policy

Despite operating a delivery programme for RES-E since 1990, UK targets and policy goals have not been achieved. In response, the Government reformed the RO. This article re-examines UK renewable energy policy by analysing the internal and external failures of the various mechanisms to determine if Government has learnt from previous experience in reforming the RO. Government did not learn from their own actions during the NFFO/RO transition, evidenced by high-levels of similarity in internal/external failures. The reformed-RO is expected to significantly increase deployment, has provided a ‘renewables package’ by comprehensively addressing both internal/external failures but major internal failures (price/financial risk) still remain, resulting in contiguous failures over two decades and two mechanism changes (NFFO, RO, RO/reformed-RO). Success will again be heavily dependent on a select few technologies and new/untested measures to combat external failures. Mechanism-extension to 2037 is probably the single most important factor underlying potential deployment increases. However, introducing a FIT-like system via the sheer number of ‘bolt-on’ reforms to counter policy failures indicates loss of direction and clarity. Overall, although Government appears to have learnt some of its lessons from the past two-decades, significant doubt remains whether renewable energy policy objectives will be met via the latest mechanism change.