From DC Time-Dependent Thermal Plasma Generation to Suspension Plasma-Spraying Interactions

This paper proposes an original route for modeling the time-dependent behavior of a plasma jet issued from a DC plasma-spraying torch operating with various kinds of gas mixtures. The hydrodynamic interactions between this jet and a liquid jet for suspension plasma-spraying or a classical particle injection for the deposition of coatings are studied. In a first step, the classical plasma spraying process was explored using the FLUENT CFD code. Zirconia particles, defined as Lagrangian particles, were injected in an Ar/H₂ flow and their positions, kinetic and thermal states were compared with experimental results. The trend and intensity of the values demonstrated a rather good agreement. In a second step, the suspension plasma spraying was investigated with the AQUILON CFD to simulate interactions between the plasma and aqueous jets. An Ar/H₂ plasma flow was simulated with the Large Eddy Scale turbulence model assumption, in which a liquid jet had been introduced. The behavior observed during the first stage of the interactions between the two fluids corresponded to expectations.     

Highly Segmented Thermal Barrier Coatings Deposited by Suspension Plasma Spray: Effects of Spray Process on Microstructure

Effects of the ceramic powder size used for suspension as well as several processing parameters in suspension plasma spraying of YSZ were investigated experimentally, aiming to fabricate highly segmented microstructures for thermal barrier coating (TBC) applications. Particle image velocimetry (PIV) was used to observe the atomization process and the velocity distribution of atomized droplets and ceramic particles travelling toward the substrates. The tested parameters included the secondary plasma gas (He versus H₂), suspension injection flow rate, and substrate surface roughness. Results indicated that a plasma jet with a relatively higher content of He or H₂ as the secondary plasma gas was critical to produce highly segmented YSZ TBCs with a crack density up to ~12 cracks/mm. The optimized suspension flow rate played an important role to realize coatings with a reduced porosity level and improved adhesion. An increased powder size and higher operation power level were beneficial for the formation of highly segmented coatings onto substrates with a wider range of surface roughness.     

Three-Dimensional Modeling of Suspension Plasma Spraying with Arc Voltage Fluctuations

In this study, a three-dimensional DC plasma torch is modeled using Joule effect method to simulate the plasma jet and its voltage fluctuations. The plasma gas is a mixture of argon/hydrogen, and the arc voltage fluctuation is used as an input data in the model. Reynolds stress model is used for time-dependent simulation of the oscillating flow of the plasma gas interacting with the ambient air. The results are used to investigate the plasma oscillation effects on the trajectory, temperature, and velocity of suspension droplets. Suspensions are formed of ethanol and yttria-stabilized zirconia submicron particles and modeled as multicomponent droplets. To track the droplets/particles, a two-way coupled Eulerian–Lagrangian method is employed. In addition, in order to simulate the droplet breakup, Kelvin–Helmholtz/Rayleigh–Taylor (KH–RT) breakup model is used. After the completion of suspension breakup and evaporation, the sprayed particles are tracked to obtain the in-flight particle conditions including trajectory, size, velocity, and temperature. The arc voltage fluctuations were found to cause more than two times wider particle trajectories resulting in wider particle temperature, velocity, and size distributions compared with the case of constant voltage.     

Comparison Between High-Velocity Suspension Flame Spraying and Suspension Plasma Spraying of Alumina

Two different spray processes??suspension plasma spraying (SPS) and high-velocity suspension flame spraying (HVSFS)??are under focus in the field of suspension spraying. Both techniques are suitable for manufacturing finely structured coatings. The differences in the particle velocity and temperature of these two processes cause varying coating characteristics. The high particle velocity of the HVSFS process leads to more dense coatings with low porosity values. Coatings with a higher and also homogeneous porosity, which can be generated by SPS, have also high potential, for example, for thermal barrier coatings. In this study, both the processes??SPS and HVSFS??were compared using alumina as feedstock material mixed with different solvents. Besides the characterization of the microstructure and phase composition of the applied coatings, the focus of this study was the investigation of the melting behavior of the particles in-flight and of single splat characteristics.     

Nanoparticles Modeling in Axially Injection Suspension Plasma Spray of Zirconia and Alumina Ceramics

Suspension plasma spray (SPS) is a thermal spray method in which nanoparticles are injected into the plasma jet with the help of suspension droplets to achieve thin and finely structured nanocoatings. The nanoparticles experience three in-flight stages: injection within the suspension droplets, discharge of the nanoparticle agglomerates after the evaporation of the suspension solvent, and tracking of the nanoparticle or agglomerates during the momentum and heat transfer with the plasma jet before coating. A numerical model is proposed in this paper for nanoparticle injection, discharge, acceleration, heating, melting, and evaporation. Initial values of suspension droplet size and agglomerate size are selected according to typical experimental data. Noncontinuum effects on particle acceleration and heating, known as Knudsen effects, are considered, as well as the influence of evaporation on the heat transfer. After a comparison with the experimental data, this nanoparticle model is applied for zirconia and alumina axially injected into the suspension plasma spray. Trajectory, velocity, and temperature of the in-flight nanoparticles are predicted for different initial sizes ranging from 30 nm to 1.5 μm; the distributions of the particle characteristics for multiple particles in the spray are also presented. The effects of powder size and material, power input, plasma gas flow rate, and standoff distance on the nanoparticle characteristics have been investigated and discussed.     

Suspension Plasma Spraying of YPSZ Coatings: Suspension Atomization and Injection

Among processes evaluated to produce some parts of or the whole solid-oxide fuel cell, Suspension Plasma Spraying (SPS) is of prime interest. Aqueous suspensions of yttria partially stabilized zirconia atomized into a spray by an internal-mixing co-axial twin-fluid atomizer were injected into a DC plasma jet. The dispersion and stability of the suspensions were enhanced by adjusting the amount of dispersant (ammonium salt of polyacrylic acid, PAA). A polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was further added to the suspension to tailor its viscosity. The PVA also improved the dispersion and stability of the suspensions. The atomization of optimized formulations is described implementing Weber and Ohnesorge dimensionless numbers as well as gas-to-liquid mass ratio (ALR) value. Drop size distributions changed from monomodal distributions at low We to multimodal distributions when We number increases. The viscosity of the suspensions has a clear influence on the drop size distribution and suspension spray pattern. The secondary fragmentation of the drops due to the plasma jet was evidenced and the final size of the sheared drops was shown to depend on the characteristics of the suspension. Rather dense zirconia coatings have been prepared, which is a promising way to produce electrolyte.     

Influence of Plasma Instabilities in Ceramic Suspension Plasma Spraying

Direct current Suspension Plasma Spraying (SPS) allows depositing finely structured coatings. This article presents an analysis of the influence of plasma instabilities on the yttria-stabilized suspension drops fragmentation. A particular attention is paid to the treatment of suspension jet or drops according to the importance of voltage fluctuations (linked to those of the arc root) and depending on the different spray parameters such as the plasma forming gas mixture composition and mass flow rate and the suspension momentum. By observing the suspension drops injection with a fast shutter camera and a laser flash sheet triggered by a defined transient voltage level of the plasma torch, the influence of plasma fluctuations on jet or drops fragmentation is studied through the deviation and dispersion trajectories of droplets within the plasma jet. This article is an invited paper selected from presentations at the 2007 International Thermal Spray Conference and has been expanded from the original presentation. It is simultaneously published in Global Coating Solutions, Proceedings of the 2007 International Thermal Spray Conference, Beijing, China, May 14-16, 2007, Basil R. Marple, Margaret M. Hyland, Yuk-Chiu Lau, Chang-Jiu Li, Rogerio S. Lima, and Ghislain Montavon, Ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 2007.     

Numerical Study of Suspension Plasma Spraying

A numerical study of suspension plasma spraying is presented in the current work. The liquid suspension jet is replaced with a train of droplets containing the suspension particles injected into the plasma flow. Atomization, evaporation, and melting of different components are considered for droplets and particles as they travel toward the substrate. Effect of different parameters on particle conditions during flight and upon impact on the substrate is investigated. Initially, influence of the torch operating conditions such as inlet flow rate and power is studied. Additionally, effect of injector parameters like injection location, flow rate, and angle is examined. The model used in the current study takes high-temperature gradients and non-continuum effects into account. Moreover, the important effect of change in physical properties of suspension droplets as a result of evaporation is included in the model. These mainly include variations in heat transfer properties and viscosity. Utilizing this improved model, several test cases have been considered to better evaluate the effect of different parameters on the quality of particles during flight and upon impact on the substrate.     

Suspension Plasma Spraying: Process Characteristics and Applications

Suspension plasma spraying (SPS) offers the manufacture of unique microstructures which are not possible with conventional powdery feedstock. Due to the considerably smaller size of the droplets and also the further fragmentation of these in the plasma jet, the attainable microstructural features like splat and pore sizes can be downsized to the nanometer range. Our present understanding of the deposition process including injection, suspension plasma plume interaction, and deposition will be outlined. The drawn conclusions are based on analysis of the coating microstructures in combination with particle temperature and velocity measurements as well as enthalpy probe investigations. The last measurements with the water cooled stagnation probe gives valuable information on the interaction of the carrier fluid with the plasma plume. Meanwhile, different areas of application of SPS coatings are known. In this paper, the focus will be on coatings for energy systems. Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) for modern gas turbines are one important application field. SPS coatings offer the manufacture of strain-tolerant, segmented TBCs with low thermal conductivity. In addition, highly reflective coatings, which reduce the thermal load of the parts from radiation, can be produced. Further applications of SPS coatings as cathode layers in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) and for photovoltaic (PV) applications will be presented.     

Numerical Study on Plasma Jet and Particle Behavior in Multi-arc Plasma Spraying

Plasma jet and particle behavior in conventional single-arc plasma spraying has been subject to intensive numerical research. However, multi-arc plasma spraying is a different case which has yet to be investigated more closely. Numerical models developed to investigate the characteristics of multi-arc plasma spraying (plasma generator, plasma jet, and plasma–particle interaction models) were introduced in previous publications by the authors. The plasma generator and plasma jet models were already validated by comparing calculated plasma temperatures with results of emission spectroscopic computed tomography. In this study, the above-mentioned models were subjected to further validation effort. Calculated particle in-flight characteristics were compared with those determined by means of particle diagnostics and high-speed videography. The results show very good agreement. The main aim of the current publication is to derive conclusions regarding the general characteristics of plasma jet and particle in-flight behavior in multi-arc plasma spraying. For this purpose, a numerical parameter study is conducted in which the validated models are used to allow variations in the process parameters. Results regarding plasma jet/particle in-flight temperatures and velocities are presented. Furthermore, the general characteristics of plasma jet and particle behavior in multi-arc plasma spraying are discussed and explained. This contributes to better understanding of the multi-arc plasma spraying process, in particular regarding the injection behavior of particles into hot regions of the plasma jet. Finally, an example test case showing a possible practical application area of the models is introduced.     

Simulation of Effervescent Atomization and Nanoparticle Characteristics in Radio Frequency Suspension Plasma Spray

In this paper, a comprehensive model was developed to investigate the suspension spray for a radio frequency (RF) plasma torch coupled with an effervescent atomizer. Firstly, the RF plasma is simulated by solving the thermo-fluid transport equations with electromagnetic Maxwell equation. Secondly, primary atomization of the suspension is solved by a proposed one-dimensional breakup model and validated with the experimental data. Thirdly, the suspension droplets and discharged nanoparticles are modeled in Lagrangian manner, to calculate each particle tracking, acceleration, heating, melting and evaporation. Saffman lift force, Brownian force and non-continuum effect are considered for nanoparticle momentum transfer, as well as the effects of evaporation on heat transfer. This model predicts the nanoparticle trajectory, velocity, temperature and size in the RF suspension plasma spray. Effects of the torch and atomizer operating conditions on the particle characteristics are investigated. Such operating conditions include gas-to-liquid flow ratio, atomizer orifice diameter, injection pressure, power input level, plasmas gas flow rate, and powder material. The statistical distributions for the multiple particles are also discussed for different cases.     

Synchronization of Suspension Plasma Spray Injection with the Arc Fluctuations

Poorly controlled heat and momentum transfers between plasma and material, plasma instabilities are some of the difficulties encountered in suspension plasma spraying. The improvement of this method is usually attempted by means of the reduction of arc fluctuations. This paper presents a new approach to the injection of reactive material in an arc jet. The principle is to produce a pulsed laminar plasma jet combined with phased injection of liquid droplets. This is achieved by the particular design of the plasma torch that works at moderate power and following a resonant mode. The droplets are injected using a piezoelectric device, based on drop-on-demand method, triggered by the voltage signal sampled at the torch connections. The results are evaluated by time-resolved imaging technique that shows how the trajectories are influenced by the moment at which the droplets penetrate the plasma jet.     

Parametric Study on Suspension Behavior in an Inductively Coupled Plasma

Numerical analysis is conducted for the evolution of suspension particles in an inductively coupled plasma (ICP). The mathematical model based on the Lagrangian tracking method incorporates a nanoparticle model into the ICP code. This comprehensive model considers entire physical phenomena of the in-flight particle such as injection, accelerating, solvent evaporation, solid particle discharge, heating, melting, and evaporation. After validating the computational results of the flow field with published experimental data, parametric analysis has been performed to find the way of controlling the operating conditions for desirable final particle status. The influences of injection position, carrier gas velocity, power level, particle initial size on particle size, temperature, and velocity evolution have been in detail discussed. The relationship between the predicted height of droplet complete evaporation and the droplet initial diameter is deduced. Finally, results also calculate the critical size of an ethanol droplet suspended with zirconia particles, which will be completely vaporized under present conditions.     

面向等离子熔射成形技术的粉末飞行特性数值分析

粉末在射流场中飞行特性是影响熔射成形件质量的重要因素。通过所建立的粉末与射流相互作用的动量和能量传递方程，应用有限差分法，模拟计算和分析了粉末速度与温度分布规律及其对成形件质量的影响。结果表明：①粒径及密度越小，加(减)速度越快，而到达原模时的速度则不同；②热传导性越差，粒径越大，极值温度则越小，且逐渐向原模方向偏移；③粉末的力学行为和加热特性的匹配，可进一步提高熔射成形件质量。模拟结果为实现熔射成形质量控制及参数优化，提供了理论依据。     

基于响应曲面法的Ar-N2 等离子射流特性研究

目的研究等离子射流特性,提高射流品质,为工程实践提供支撑。方法通过响应曲面法,以粒子速度和温度为指标反映射流特性的变化,采用Box-Behnken-Design(BBD)设计分析电流(I)、主气流量(Q)以及次级气比例(C)对于射流特性的影响规律及其相互作用关系。结果对粒子速度的影响因素排序为Q_(Ar)IC,对粒子温度的影响因素排序为IQ_(Ar)C。该喷嘴下实现最佳加热效应的参数为:主气流量80 L/min、电流450 A、次级气比例22.5%。实现射流最佳加速效应的离子气及电参数为:主气流量140 L/min、次级气比例15%、电流400 A。在射流最佳加速效应对应参数下制备的AT40涂层均匀致密、孔隙少。结论运用响应曲面法分析和解决等离子射流特性影响问题具有科学性和可操作性,能够有效指导涂层制备。     

In-situ particle temperature, velocity, and size measurements in DC Arc plasma thermal sprays

Particle temperature, velocity, and size measurements in DC arc plasma thermal sprays are reported in this article. Experiments were performed using a conventional DC are argon-hydrogen plasma with two 7 wt % yttria-stabilized zirconia powders injected transversely into the plasma jet. Measurements were performed along the axis of the plasma jet as well as at a number of radial locations at several axial positions. It was found that transverse injection of the powder results in the aerodynamic size classification of the powder with the large particles penetrating further across the plasma jet than the smaller particles, which were more readily swept by the high momentum of the plasma jet. Consequently, the particle temperatures were influenced by their degree of penetration into the core of the plasma jet. Average particle temperatures showed a good degree of uniformity radially and decayed with increasing downstream distance. When nanoclustered particles were injected into the plasma, significant differences in particle velocities and temperatures were observed in comparison to the conventional powder under the same plasma operating and particle injection conditions. These differences were attributed to the penetration characteristics of the powder into the plasma jet and the consequent effects on the particle heat up. Hence, axial injection of powder into plasma jets may provide more uniform and axisymmetric particle property distributions compared to the transverse injection schemes.     

基于响应曲面的Ar气氛超音速等离子喷涂钛涂层

采用超音速等离子喷涂可低成本、高效率制备钛涂层。采用响应曲面法（RSM）中的Box-Behnken（BBD）设计分析了Ar流量、功率、喷涂距离3个因素与超音速等离子射流中钛粒子飞行速度和温度的交互性,利用SEM和显微硬度计研究了钛涂层的微观结构和显微硬度。结果表明：建立的线性模型可靠,喷涂距离对粒子飞行速度和温度影响最大,且随喷涂距离增加粒子飞行速度减小温度增加,而Ar流量和功率对粒子飞行速度和温度的影响与喷涂距离相反。超音速等离子喷涂制备出的钛涂层硬度较低,且呈多孔结构,随粒子飞行速度增加孔隙率降低。     

Manufacturing Process of Nanostructured Alumina Coatings by Suspension Plasma Spraying

This paper describes the formation process of nanostructured alumina coatings and the injection system obtained by suspension plasma spraying (SPS), an alternative to the atmospheric plasma spraying technique in which the material feedstock is a suspension of the nanopowder to be sprayed. The nanoscale alumina powders (d ≈ 20 nm) were dispersed in distilled water or ethanol and injected by a peristaltic pump into plasma under atmospheric conditions. Optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and x-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses were performed to study the microstructure of the nanostructured alumina coatings. The results showed that the nanoscale alumina powders in suspension were very easily adsorbed at the inner surface of injection, which caused the needle to jam. The rotation of the pump had a great effect on the suspension injection in the plasma. The very small resistance of the thin plasma boundary layer near the substrate can drastically decrease the impacting velocity of nanosize droplets. The concentration of suspension also has a significant influence on the distribution of the size of the droplet, the enthalpy needed for spraying suspension, and the roughness of the coating surface. The phase structures of alumina suspension coatings strongly depend on the plasma spraying distance. A significant nanostructured fine alumina coating was obtained in some areas when ethanol was used as a solvent. The microstructures of the coating were observed as a function of the solvent and the spraying parameters.     

Influence of process parameters on the deposition footprint in plasma-spray coating

This paper presents an investigation of the influence of plasma spray process conditions on the in-flight particle behavior and their cumulative deposition to form a coating on the substrate. Three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analyses were performed to model the in-flight particle behavior in the plasma-spray process and their deposition on the substrate. The plasma spray was modeled as a jet issuing from the torch nozzle through the electrical heating of the arc gas. In the model, particles were injected into the plasma jet where they acquired heat and momentum from the plasma, some got melted and droplets were formed. By means of a droplet splatting model, the particle in-flight data generated by the CFD analyses were further processed to build up an imaginary three-dimensional deposition profile on a flat stationary substrate. It is found that the powder carrier gas flow rate influences the particle distribution on the substrate by imparting an injection momentum to the particles that were directed radially into the plasma jet in a direction perpendicular to the plasma jet. The larger sized particles will acquire higher injection momentum compared with the smaller sized particles. This causes particle distribution at the substrate surface that is elliptical in shape with the major axis of ellipse parallel to the particle injection port axis as illustrated in Fig. 1. Larger particles tend to congregate at the lower part of the ellipse, due to their greater momentum. The distribution of particle size, temperature, velocity, and count distribution at the substrate was analyzed. Further, based on the size and the computed particle temperature, velocity histories, and the impact sites on the substrate, the data were processed to build up a deposition profile with the Pasandideh-Fard model. The shapes of deposition profiles were found to be strongly driven by the segregation effect.