An Investigation into Lubrication and Oxide Breakdown During Load-Carrying Capacity Testing

Changes occurring in the friction and wear mechanisms during a load-carrying capacity test, lubricated with cetane containing a carboxylic acid, were investigated. The changes in wear scar/track appearance and oxide coverage/composition were analyzed during every load stage.

The main conclusions were as follows:

• The breakdown in the protective oxide layer formed on the opposing steel surfaces was found to be the prerequisite for initiation of seizure.

• The seizure load achieved during load-carrying capacity testing quantifies the ability of the test fluid to prevent transition to the adhesive wear regime.

• The most severe surface damage was found to occur during the first few seconds after test initiation. Desorption of the adsorbed lubricant film and the subsequent removal of the naturally occurring thin oxide layer results in the initial period of adhesive wear.

• Partial recovery to a state of acceptable friction occurs after the period of initial seizure. During this period, the surface coverage by the adsorption lubricant molecules and the oxide coverage are sufficient to prevent severe adhesive wear from occurring. Wear is primarily a combination of oxidative, abrasive, and fatigue wear (all possible in the regions of mixed friction and boundary lubrication).

• Final lubricant breakdown and eventual seizure are initiated when the oxide removal rate exceeds the oxide formation rate resulting in severe adhesive wear followed by seizure.

     

钢/玻璃的摩擦磨损性能动态观测研究

本实验在自行设计的摩擦磨损动态观测实验机进行,摩擦副之间的接触采用球一盘式接触。研究表明：当以较低速度滑动时,钢球表面的氧化物起到抗磨作用;滑动速度达到一定值时,氧化膜的生成速度小于氧化膜的磨损速度,摩擦表面为粘着磨损;当滑动速度继续升高时,摩擦表面的活化能增加,氧化加速．又出现氧化磨损;而滑动速度过高时,粘着磨损成为主要磨损形式,同时由于磨粒的作用,表面也发生疲劳磨损和磨料磨损．致使磨损急剧增加;表面层在摩擦热导致的高温条件下,氧化膜的生成速度又有所增加,氧化磨损为主要形式。     

Tribological performance evaluation of (1 1 1) preferred oriented TiN duplex coatings

The duplex surface coating of hot work tool steel, which comprises nitriding of a substrate and coating of a TiN layer, has been the subject of a series of studies as a potential surface modification for tools and machine parts. Through sliding experiment against an aluminum alloy without lubrication, it was shown on a wear map that there are two domains depending on sliding conditions: the wear domain and the transfer domain. In this study, focusing on the improvement in the tribological properties of the duplex coating in terms of the wear domain, the effects of film characteristics on film resistance to erosion wear and film life were investigated. Two kinds of duplex coatings with different film characteristics were prepared by hollow cathode discharge ion plating: a newly developed TiN film with a strong (1 1 1) orientation and an ordinary TiN film with (1 1 1) and (2 0 0) orientations. The erosion wear rate of duplex coating was evaluated by a micro slurry jet erosion test. Film life was evaluated by a sliding test against an aluminum alloy as in previous experiments. It was revealed that the duplex coating with the newly developed TiN film (N-coating) shows higher erosion resistance than previously reported duplex coating (C-coating). From the sliding test, it was also revealed that the N-coating whose XRD intensity ratio of (1 1 1) to (2 0 0) is over 100 shows a wear mode with only chipping, with no scratching, which shortens film life. The film life of N-coating increases about twice as long as C-coating, which has shown higher performance than a conventional duplex coating. Possible mechanisms of the improvement in the tribological properties with N-coating are discussed.     

On the wear characteristics of cobalt-based hardfacing layer after thermal fatigue and oxidation

High temperature wear characteristics of Stellite 6 alloy containing Cr₃C₂ after thermal fatigue and oxidation treatment at 700°C were investigated. The hardfacing layer was deposited by plasma transferred arc (PTA) process. After thermal fatigue treatment, cracks propagated along boundaries of incoherent chromium carbide particles. Significant oxidation occurred mainly on the clad layer containing Cr₃C₂. The wear test results revealed a slightly higher wear volume on Stellite 6 with Cr₃C₂ due to the existence of cracks. The formation of oxide on the surface could effectively reduce the wear volume by reducing the real contact area between mating surfaces. Lower sliding speed resulted in higher wear volume. The mechanism was interpreted by the friction coefficient change during sliding wear. Wear test results were further interpreted by investigating the wear trace via SEM. Possible wear mechanisms were postulated. Analysis of wear debris showed severe oxidation on the Stellite 6 with Cr₃C₂. It could be concluded that oxidation on the clad layer was beneficial to the wear resistance at elevated temperature. Thermal fatigue cracking on the surface might be detrimental to the wear resistance, however, this could be partly compensated by the existence of oxide.     

Effect of Layer Thickness on the Rolling-Sliding Wear Behavior of Low-Temperature Plasma-Carburized Austenitic Stainless Steel

Dry rolling-sliding wear tests have been carried out in the present work to investigate the tribological behavior of the novel surface engineered layers produced on AISI 316 austenitic stainless steel by the low-temperature, plasma-carburizing technique. Three carburized layers with varying thickness, ranging from 15 to 40 m, have been tested using the Amsler configuration. The results show that the carburized layers can prevent surface plastic deformation and improve the wear resistance of the steel during the early stage of the wear process. However, subsurface plastic deformation occurs beneath the layer, leading to the catastrophic failure of the layer and a transition in the wear rate after a limited duration of testing. The thickest layer tested produces the best wear performance under the present rolling-sliding test conditions.     

Tribological Characteristics of Oxide Layer Formed on TiN Coated Silicon Wafer

The effects of the oxide layer formed on the wear tracks of a titanium nitride (TiN) coated silicon wafer on friction and wear characteristics were investigated. Silicon wafers were used as the substrate of coated disk specimens, which were prepared by depositing TiN coating with 1.74 m in coating thickness using the arc ion-plating method. SAE 52100 steel balls were used as the counter-faces. The tests were performed both in air for forming an oxide layer on the wear track and in nitrogen to avoid oxidation. This paper reports the characterization of the oxide layer and its effects on friction and wear characteristics using Auger electron spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The TiN coating with the oxides shows relatively high friction compared to that without an oxide layer. The thickness of the layer formed on the surfaces of the TiN coated silicon wafer is very thin compared to the thickness of the TiN coating. The oxide layer dominates the frictional characteristics between the two materials and induces a relative high friction.     

Tribological Properties of Diamond-Like Carbon Films in Low and High Moist Air

Diamond-like carbon (DLC) film was deposited on Si wafer by a plasma CVD deposition system using benzene. Tribological properties of the DLC film were evaluated using a ball-on-disk tribo-meter in low (RH 1720 %) and high humidity (RH 9095 %) conditions in air. The effect of sliding speed (4.2 mm/s to 25 mm/s) and load (1.06 N to 3.08 N) on friction and wear was investigated. The friction behavior of the DLC film was obviously different in low and high humidity. When tested under low humidity conditions, the friction coefficient decreased significantly with increasing speed, and increased with load. However, under high humidity conditions, the friction coefficient increased with the speed and decreased with increasing load. The wear of the DLC film was little influenced by the sliding speed, normal load and humidity; a level of 10^-8 mm³/Nm could be obtained in all tests. The formation of a uniform transfer layer would be the main factor which controlled the friction coefficient of the DLC films. Unlike the friction, the wear resistance of the DLC film is not so easy to discuss and may be affected mainly by the tribo-chemical reaction in all the test conditions.     

Reciprocating sliding wear of 9% Cr steel in carbon dioxide at elevated temperatures

Experiments were conducted on the initial stages of reciprocating sliding wear of a 9% chromium steel in an environment of carbon dioxide at temperatures in the range 200 to 550°C. At ambient temperatures of 290°C and above, an initial severe wear mode was followed by a transition to mild oxidational wear. At any given ambient temperature above 290°C, the distance of sliding required to reach such a transition was found to depend on load and mean sliding speed, although the dependency on speed was not simple. When a transition occurred, most of the surfaces were covered with a stable oxide film which consisted of an agglomerate layer of wear debris being mainly of oxide at the surface and mainly at the metal boundary. This film was supported by a work hardened layer extending for about 30 μm into the bulk of the metal. A surface model is proposed to explain the mechanism of formation of the supportive oxide layer; predictions of volume of material removed and final oxide coverage at the transition are in close agreement with experimental values     

Wear mechanism of disc-brake block material for new type of drilling rig

To improve friction and wear performance and service life of the disc-brake pair material of a drilling rig, a new type of asbestos-free frictional material with better performance for disc-brake blocks is developed, and its wear mechanism is investigated by friction and wear experiments. Topography and elementary components of the brake block’s wear surface are analyzed by employing SEM and EDAX patterns, revealing its tribological behaviour and wear mechanism. When the frictional temperature is lower, the surface film of the brake block is thinner, dense, smooth with plasticity, and divided into the mixture area, Feabundant area, carbon-abundant area and spalling area. The mixture area consists of various constituents of frictional pairs without ploughing and rolling trace. The Fe-abundant area mainly consists of iron and other constituents. The carbon-abundant area is the zone where graphite and organic fibre are comparatively gathered, while the spalling area is the zone where the surface film is spalled and its surface is rough and uneven, with a loose and denuded state. During the period of high frictional temperature, the frictional surface is also divided into the mixture area, Feabundant area and spalling area. In this case, the mixture area consists of abrasive dust from friction pairs, and the surface film is distributed with crumby hard granules, exiguous oxide, carbide granules and sheared slender fibre. The Fe-abundant area is mostly an oxide layer of iron with a flaky distribution. Fracture and spalling traces as well as an overlapping structure of multilayer surface films can be easily found on the surface film. The components of the spalling area are basically the same as that of the matrix. At the beginning of wear, the hard peaks from the friction surface of the disc-brake plough on the surface of the brake block. With increasing frictional temperature, the friction surface begins to soften and expand, and oxidized wear occurs at the same time. During the high-temperature wear period, severely influenced by friction heat, obvious softening and plastic flow can be found on the friction surface of the brake block, its anti-shearing ability is weakened, and adhesive wear is intensified. Thermal decomposition of cohesive material in the brake block is simultaneously strengthened, so that constituents shed due to loss of adhesion. Organic fibre is in a flowing state and obviously generates drawing, shearing, carbonization and oxidization. In addition, thermal cracking, thermal oxidization, carbonization and cyclization of organic substances on the surface of brake block can make the friction surface produce pores or cracks, thus fatigue wear occurs.     

Wear mechanism of disc-brake block material for new type of drilling rig

To improve friction and wear performance and service life of the disc-brake pair material of a drilling rig, a new type of asbestos-free frictional material with better performance for disc-brake blocks is developed, and its wear mechanism is investigated by friction and wear experiments. Topography and elementary components of the brake block’s wear surface are analyzed by employing SEM and EDAX patterns, revealing its tribological behaviour and wear mechanism. When the frictional temperature is lower, the surface film of the brake block is thinner, dense, smooth with plasticity, and divided into the mixture area, Fe-abundant area, carbon-abundant area and spalling area. The mixture area consists of various constituents of frictional pairs without ploughing and rolling trace. The Fe-abundant area mainly consists of iron and other constituents. The carbon-abundant area is the zone where graphite and organic fibre are comparatively gathered, while the spalling area is the zone where the surface film is spalled and its surface is rough and uneven, with a loose and denuded state. During the period of high frictional temperature, the frictional surface is also divided into the mixture area, Fe-abundant area and spalling area. In this case, the mixture area consists of abrasive dust from friction pairs, and the surface film is distributed with crumby hard granules, exiguous oxide, carbide granules and sheared slender fibre. The Fe-abundant area is mostly an oxide layer of iron with a flaky distribution. Fracture and spalling traces as well as an overlapping structure of multilayer surface films can be easily found on the surface film. The components of the spalling area are basically the same as that of the matrix. At the beginning of wear, the hard peaks from the friction surface of the disc-brake plough on the surface of the brake block. With increasing frictional temperature, the friction surface begins to soften and expand, and oxidized wear occurs at the same time. During the high-temperature wear period, severely influenced by friction heat, obvious softening and plastic flow can be found on the friction surface of the brake block, its anti-shearing ability is weakened, and adhesive wear is intensified. Thermal decomposition of cohesive material in the brake block is simultaneously strengthened, so that constituents shed due to loss of adhesion. Organic fibre is in a flowing state and obviously generates drawing, shearing, carbonization and oxidization. In addition, thermal cracking, thermal oxidization, carbonization and cyclization of organic substances on the surface of brake block can make the friction surface produce pores or cracks, thus fatigue wear occurs.     

Friction and wear behaviors of aluminum-on-steel under the lubrication of grease containing a complex of lanthanum dialkyldithiocarbamate and phenanthroline

A complex of lanthanum dialkyldithiocarbamate and phenanthroline was synthesized, and its lubricating and antiwear behaviors as an additive in lithium grease were evaluated using a Timken tester with a SAE52100 steel ring sliding under an A1 2024 block. As a comparison, the wear behavior of a steel-on-steel system under the lubrication of the same grease was also investigated under the same test conditions. The protective film formed on the rubbed surface of aluminum was investigated by both XPS and AES. Results of friction and wear tests indicate that this rare earth complex possess good antiwear ability for aluminum, and its antiwear and friction reduction properties for the aluminum-on-steel system is even superior to that for the steel-on-steel system. The results of AES and XPS analyses illustrate that the prepared La complex as an additive in lithium grease forms a protective film containing lanthanum oxide, aluminum sulphide, and an organic compound containing sulfur and nitrogen on the rubbed surface of aluminum.     

Impact wear of MgO single crystals II. Impact and wear damage

The impact wear damage of MgO single crystals was investigated under an impact load of 60 kgf. Two types of impact damage, a zero wear process and a measurable wear process, are distinguished. The impact scar shows three types of cracks: subsurface cracks parallel to the surface, and tangential and radial cracks on the surface. In the early stages of the wear process the impact scar is surrounded by surface and subsurface cracks and grows as a unit square cell; wear occurs at the scar bottom and on the scar wall. Consequently the profile of the wear scar changes to a hemispherical or parabolic shape. The zero wear limit under each impact load is determined from the static contact stress and the number of impacts.     

A multilayer approach for enhancing the erosive wear resistance of CVD diamond coatings

The erosive wear behavior of mono-, bi- and multilayered diamond composite coatings grown by hot filament chemical vapor deposition (HFCVD) is investigated. The effect of the surface pre-treatment on the silicon nitride substrates was firstly evaluated revealing that flat lapping mechanical treatment combined with chemical CF₄ plasma etching is the best surface preparation to achieve high adhesion levels. Multilayers were designed to combine the excellent adhesion of microcrystalline diamond (MCD) with a top nanocrystalline diamond (NCD) layer of reduced surface roughness. Indeed, the multilayered diamond coatings revealed the best erosive resistance, whose damage occurred by gradual loosening of material from the outer layer after longer testing time. The absence of areas with film spallation or substrate exposure is given by the action of the MCD/NCD interfaces in deflecting cracks, thus acting as “energy sinks” to further propagation. An analytical model of the stress field distribution within the coatings based on the von Mises criterion was developed to elucidate the erosive mechanical behavior of the different diamond composites.     

Wear of Unlubricated Steel Surfaces in Sliding Contact

Observations have been made of the wear from an SAE 1113 steel pin specimen rubbing on a SAE 113 steel disk in a normal laboratory atmosphere in relation to normal load (0.5–10.4 lbf), slidinq speed (21–188 ft/sec), sliding distance and track history. As a function of sliding distance, three regions are observed; (i) initial severe wear, (ii) mild wear resultinq from the formation of oxide layers on both the pin specimen and transferred particles adhering to the track, (iii) a milder wear, due to the attainment of a uniform track condition. The wear rate measured in (ii) is observed to be proportional to normal load for constant (normal load)^1/2 × (sliding speed) provided that the magnitude of this parameter is insufficient to cause periodic removal of the surface film. This conclusion is shown to be compatible with earlier theoretical predictions when the presence of an oxide layer was pre-supposed. Unlike the coefficient of friction which is primarily determined by the pin surface condition only, the pin wear rate depends on the conditions of both the pin and track surface.     

Investigation of erosion-corrosion mechanisms of UNS S31603 using FIB and TEM

Accelerated wear due to synergy during erosion-corrosion of UNS S31603 is extremely complex. It is this reason that current modelling approaches fail to accurately model the physical mechanisms in this wear process. The objective of this work was to perform FIB and TEM analysis on UNS S31603 to investigate the subsurface deformation mechanisms and microstructural changes in the material during erosion-corrosion. FIB investigation revealed a decrease in grain size at the surface and a change in grain orientation towards the impact direction. Networks of cracks were observed near the surface which is believed to be caused by work hardening of the material which increased the material susceptibility to fatigue cracking. Folding of lips is also proposed as an important mechanism for subsurface wear. The large amount of strain imposed on the material also induced martensitic phase transformation. Fragmented erodent particles and oxide film were found embedded into the material which caused formation stress concentrated regions in the material and contributed to crack initiation. A composite structure is formed consisting silicon oxide sand particles and chromium oxide film along with the martensitic phase transformed metal. The corrosive environment is also believed to have played a significant role in the initiation and propagation of cracks. Crack initiation and propagation due to the mechanical and electrochemical processes enhances the material mass loss as the crack networks coalesce and subsequently cause material spalling. Physical models are developed based on these observations to explain the microstructural changes and synergistic mechanisms.     

Sliding wear behavior of Fe-based bulk metallic glass at high temperature

In the past decade Fe-based bulk metallic glasses (BMGs) have attracted increasing attention due to their beneficial properties, including high glass forming ability (GFA), high strength and hardness and high fracture toughness in both fundamental science and engineering application. Most research using these materials has been conducted at room temperature environment, and research that assesses their behavior especially at high temperature has been scarce. We present the results of high temperature effect on the friction and wear behavior of Fe-based bulk metallic glass (BMG), and we tested that this material may satisfy wear and oxidation resistance at high temperature as well as to explore the high temperature wear mechanism of the Fe-based BMG. The dry sliding tribological behaviors of Febased BMG against Si₃N₄ ceramic were conducted with a pin-on-disc friction and wear tribometer. The morphology of the worn surfaces of Fe-based BMG was examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the chemical composition characterized with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) to observe the wear characteristics and investigate the wear mechanisms. The overall average friction coefficient value generally decreased with increasing temperature, and the glass transition and the formation of protective oxide film played an important role in the tribological behavior of BMG. The wear resistance of Fe-based BMG was not only from their hardness but also from the formation protective oxide layer. Analysis of the worn surface revealed abrasion, plastic deformation and oxidation during sliding test.     

Investigation of the Transition State in the Wear of Polyphenylene Sulfide Sliding Against Steel

The effect of sliding variables, including counterface roughness, sliding speed, and contact pressure, on the run-in state of wear and friction was studied. Sliding was performed in the pin-on-disk configuration with a polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) pin resting on the flat steel counterface. Some experiments were also run to study the effect of air cooling and heating. Optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy were used to study the shape and size of the wear debris, worn pin surface, and the transfer film formed on steel counterfaces. It was found that friction and wear in the run-in state were significantly affected by the sliding variables studied and their influence was closely related to the development of a transfer film during the run-in state. If the transfer film developed during initial sliding, the coefficient of friction increased and wear rate decreased. The wear rate in the run-in state increased with the increase in initial counterface roughness and there was an optimal counterface roughness of 0.06 m Ra for minimum steady state wear rate. A higher applied load led to a higher wear rate in the run-in state but that was not the case with steady state wear rate.     

Tribological Behavior of Grafted Polymer Gel Nanocoatings

A robust molecular lubrication layer on a silicon surface has been fabricated from a grafted polymer gel with thickness below 10 nm. A functionalized rubber-glassy block-copolymer was chemically grafted to a silicon oxide surface and its tribological performance was enhanced by vapor saturation with a minute amount of alkyl-based paraffinic oil. A combination of tribological measurements and Auger electron spectroscopy was used to monitor the polymer layer wearing behavior. We observed that unlike a dry polymer layer and a classic boundary lubricant, an alkylsilane self-assembled monolayer, the polymer gel coating exhibited a steady friction response, a very low value of the coefficient of friction, and possessed much higher wear-resistance.     

等离子体氮化与物理气相沉积复合处理的研究进展

简要综述了等离子体氮化及物理气相沉积复合处理的新进展,主要介绍了复合处理的工艺进展、复合处理镀层的组织结构、膜/基结合力、耐磨性和耐腐蚀性,并对复合处理的应用前景进行了展望。     

The Influence of Polydimethyl Siloxane on the Friction and Wear of Polyphenylene Oxide Under Boundary Lubrication Conditions

Experiments are described in which polyphenylene oxide (PPO) specimens were first slid against EN31 steel in the presence of polydimethyl siloxane (silicone fluid) and then slid without any external injection of silicone fluid until the friction reached the value characteristic of dry conditions. Nominal Hertzian line-contact conditions were maintained throughout each experiment (despite the wear of the PPO) by slowly rotating the PPO pin about its cylindrical axis while its flat end-face was itself sliding against the cylindrical surface of the EN31 steel cylinder, thereby maximizing the possibility of true boundary lubrication. These experiments showed that the modified surface layer produced during sliding in silicone fluid is the result of adsorption of the fluid into the polymer and that absorption is primarily a consequence of the wear process itself. Electron probe microanalysis and Rutherford back-scattering of α-particles were used to examine the worn polymer surfaces to show that some migration of fluid from the surface layers into the bulk polymer must occur. Thermomechanical analysis was also used to show that the silicone fluid penetrating the surface of PPO during wear leads to plasticization rather than a simple physical mixing. The results are dicussed in terms of previous work showing that only traces of fluid are necessary for polymer lubrication. The importance of ensuring that truly boundary lubrication conditions operate in polymer/metal systems is emphasized, especially if the system is expected to eventually function in starved lubrication conditions. Suggestions are made for further work necessary to substantiate (a) the possibility that the uptake of fluid occurs through surface cracks and fissures caused by the high stresses occuring at those asperity contacts not protected by a fluid film and (b) the possibility that once induced into a surface layer of a Polymer, the fluid can provide almost limitless protection from high frictional forces (at the expense, however, of significant wear of the polymer).