Range of verbal behavior as a function of counselor philosophy and coached-client role behavior.

To assess the influence of counselor philosophy and client type on the range of counselor trainee verbal behavior, the Philosophies of Human Nature Scale was administered to 34 counseling practicum students who subsequently interviewed role-played clients in an initial interview setting. Measurement of trainee philosophy was limited to the aspect of human multiplexity. Clients were coached in roles depicting combinations of (a) the nature and source of reinforcement and (b) the style of instrumental behavior within the personality pattern schema of T. Millon (1969). E. J. Amidon's (1965) revision of N. A. Flanders's (1967) system of interaction analysis was used to code counselor trainee verbal behavior. Results indicate that client type only, not counselor's philosophy, influenced the range of trainee verbal behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Client and counselor verbal category systems for the analysis of trainees' counseling.

Developed a set of operationally defined verbal behavior categories for clients, the client verbal behavior system (CL-VBS), and for counselors, the counselor verbal behavior system (CO-VBS), to match the categories in the training models developed by R. R. Carkhuff and W. A. Anthony (1979) and by A. F. Ivey and J. Authier (1978) to study the acquisition of the skills and their impact on client responses and outcomes. Experts (the 1st 2 authors) established the content validity. Reliability was ascertained by examining agreement among 12 judges and their concordance with a criterion set by the authors. Both reliabilities were highly significant. The criterion analysis revealed sources of errors which showed how to improve the systems' designs and training in a 2nd study with an additional 6 judges (graduate counseling students). As a result of this study, the CL-VBS and the CO-VBS are ready for the study of the efficacy of the Carkhuff and Ivey training models, the impact of counselor skills on clients, reciprocal interaction effects, and the impact of these factors on client outcomes. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

From in-session behaviors to drinking outcomes: A causal chain for motivational interviewing.

Client speech in favor of change within motivational interviewing sessions has been linked to treatment outcomes, but a causal chain has not yet been demonstrated. Using a sequential behavioral coding system for client speech, the authors found that, at both the session and utterance levels, specific therapist behaviors predict client change talk. Further, a direct link from change talk to drinking outcomes was observed, and support was found for a mediational role for change talk between therapist behavior and client drinking outcomes. These data provide preliminary support for the proposed causal chain indicating that client speech within treatment sessions can be influenced by therapists, who can employ this influence to improve outcomes. Selective eliciting and reinforcement of change talk is proposed as a specific active ingredient of motivational interviewing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conceptual system as a predisposition toward therapeutic communication.

Investigated the relationship between conceptual level and counselor trainee behavior in a counseling analog. Comparison of the verbal responses of 86 graduate student counselors, using the 6 categories of E. Amidon's counselor interaction analysis and Griffin's Counselor Verbal Response Scale, indicated differences in the response patterns of students as a function of their conceptual level. It is concluded that conceptual level may be an important variable for counselor selection and program development. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of a category system of good moments in Gestalt therapy.

10 nonmutually exclusive categories of good moments (i.e., client behaviors or processes represented as therapeutically valuable or desirable) developed from a review of the Gestalt literature were used to rate 458 verbal behaviors of clients drawn from 4 therapy sessions with well known Gestalt therapists. Agreement levels among judges (2 male clinical psychologists and 2 female senior PhD students in clinical psychology) ranged from acceptable to very high for 8 of the individual categories. Analyses of co-occurrences indicated that most categories included in the computations tapped separate dimensions of client behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Evaluating the performance of paper people.

111 studies published, 1975–1984, were grouped into 5 major substantive categories, and a comparative meta-analysis was used to contrast the outcomes of paper people studies (i.e., raters read performance vignettes and then rated the performance of several hypothetical ratees) to those of similar studies in which ratings were based on the direct or indirect observation (e.g., via videotape) of ratee behavior. Effect sizes were found to be significantly larger in paper people studies, although this difference was not uniform across all research areas. Results are discussed in terms of differences in signal-to-noise ratios across the 2 methods. (101 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Client and Counselor Trainee Attachment as Predictors of Session Evaluation and Countertransference Behavior in First Counseling Sessions.

This study investigated client and counselor trainee attachment as predictors of session evaluation and countertransference behavior in 93 first counseling sessions. Results indicated that client attachment predicted aspects of session evaluation, whereas counselor attachment and the interaction of client and counselor attachment predicted aspects of countertransference. Specifically, client fearful attachment was negatively associated with client ratings of session smoothness and depth and with counselor ratings of session smoothness. Counselor dismissing attachment was positively associated with supervisor ratings of hostile countertransference. Furthermore, interactions between client and counselor attachment predicted hostile and distancing countertransference reactions, such that countertransference was highest when the client had a preoccupied attachment pattern and the counselor trainee had a fearful or dismissing attachment pattern. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in trainees' intention use and volunteer clients' evaluations of sessions during early skills training.

Volunteer clients (N = 96) evaluated sessions conducted by prepracticum trainees prior to and after the trainees received instruction in interpersonal–psychodynamic therapy. The relationship between changes in therapeutic style, measured by intension use, and changes in volunteer clients' session evaluations were examined with growth curve analyses. After training, trainees increased their focus on client emotions and on the therapeutic relationship and decreased their verbal activity. Increased session smoothness was related to decreases in trainee verbal activity and to increases in trainee flexibility. Increases in volunteer clients' perceptions of trainee expertness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness were related to trainees' increased focus on client emotions and increased focus on the therapeutic relationship and to decreases in confrontation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lecturing, reading, and modeling in counselor restatement training.

In this study with a total of 92 Caucasian female counselor trainees, Ss' verbal behavior change was viewed as being dependent on the training program components, i.e., verbal, written, and model presentations. Specific hypotheses were derived concerning the quantitative production of the target verbal behavior given the training program design. Ss were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 experimental groups: (a) control group; (b) lecture presentation; (c) lecture and reading presentation; and (d) lecture, reading, and model presentation. After exposure to the training program detailing restatement, Ss responded to 10 audiorecorded client statements. One-way analyses of variance demonstrated that the lecture presentation produced a significant increase of target verbal behavior, as did the addition of reading. Model presentation after the 2 symbolic model presentations did not cause a significant increase in production. Implications of symbolic modeling for counselor training and research are discussed. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Contingencies of therapist and trainer performance: A review.

Presents an applied analysis of therapist and trainer behavior in terms of contingencies (i.e., discriminative stimuli), which set the occasion for therapist and trainer responding, and consequences, which reinforce therapist and trainer behaviors. The behavior of therapists and trainers is examined against research in which they executed behavior modification programs in applied settings. Discriminative stimuli for trainer responding are discussed, including protocols, instructions, frequency, and topography of trainee behaviors. A number of trainer responses are reviewed (e.g., the trainer's selection of trainee behavior for modification and the trainer's administration of reinforcements). Consequences of trainer performance are discussed, such as changes in the rate of trainee responding and other trainee reinforcement responses. Finally, training procedures for trainers are reviewed. Guidelines are suggested to help maintain therapist and trainer responding subsequent to training. (5 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A semantic space for nonverbal behavior.

Reviews evidence relevant to the conceptualization of the referents of nonverbal behavior. 3 dimensions seem to evolve consistently from studies of both verbal and nonverbal behavior to account for the bulk of the variability of the referents. These are evaluation, potency or status, and responsiveness. Increases in positive evaluation are denoted by immediate positions and postures (e.g., a closer position, more forward lean, more eye contact, and more direct orientation); increases in potency or status are denoted by greater degrees of postural relaxation; and increases in responsiveness by greater activity (e.g., facial activity, speech intonation, or speech rate). (36 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stochastic process analysis of interactive discourse in early counseling interviews.

Examined patterns of interactive discourse to determine how client and counselor establish a working alliance in their early interviews. It was assumed, from a sociolinguistic perspective, that negotiation of the therapeutic relationship is reflected in the flow of talk, particularly during topic transitions. Based on an atheoretical classification of 312 conversational turns from 14 client–counselor dyads (14 undergraduate clients and 11 doctoral-student counselors), a stochastic analysis was conducted to test Markovian assumptions in the interactive patterns of counseling discourse and to identify patterns surrounding topic initiation and adoption. The 2 Markov chain conditions were satisfied, (i.e., the sequences of talk were highly stable [stationarity] and predictable [1st-order dependence]). Topic shifts were likely to be observed frequently and repetitively, suggesting a struggle for control over the interaction. The most predictable sequence, however, was the use of a passing turn to signal the speaker to elaborate on the established topic rather than shift the focus. These sequences were independent of speaker's role, underscoring the reciprocal influence of client and counselor in establishing a common understanding of the problem and defining their relationship. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparative effectiveness of six counselor verbal responses.

Examined the effect of 6 counselor verbal responses on clients' verbal behavior and on their perceptions of counselors. The verbal responses were affect, coontent, influencing, advice, open question, and closed question responses. 90 female undergraduates were randomly assigned to 1 of the 6 treatments. Each participant played the role of client in a simulated helping interaction, and afterwards, they completed the Counselor Rating Form. Affect responses were found to be the most desirable from both the counselors' and clients' perspectives, and closed questions were least desirable. Content responses and open questions were also highly effective in eliciting desirable client behavior. Advice responses were rated highly by clients but were not effective in eliciting desirable client behavior. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral and emotional problems among Thai and American adolescents: parent reports for ages 12-16

We studied adolescents' behavioral and emotional problems in the United States and in Thailand, a Buddhist country in which, reportedly, aggression is discouraged and self-control, emotional restraint, and social inhibition are encouraged. Standardized parent reports on 118 problems revealed 45 Thai-U.S. differences. Thai adolescents were reported to show more overcontrolled problems (e.g., shyness, compulsivity, inhibition of talking, fearfulness, and constipation) than American adolescents (p < .0001). The two groups did not differ reliably in total undercontrolled problems, but Americans showed higher levels of direct, overt, and interpersonally aggressive undercontrol (e.g., fighting and bullying), whereas Thais showed more indirect and subtle undercontrol that was not interpersonally aggressive (e.g., sulking and sullenness). The findings suggest that different cultures may be linked to different styles of adolescent problem behavior.     

Assessment of overt behavior and childhood depression among psychiatrically disturbed children.

Examined the relation of direct observations of overt behavior to depression among 62 child psychiatric inpatients (aged 8–13 yrs). Childhood depression was assessed by self-report and interview measures administered separately to Ss and their mothers. DSM-III diagnoses were also obtained from direct interviews and were supplemented with clinical information. Direct observations of Ss were obtained during free-time periods over several days. Multiple behaviors were observed and coded into 1 of 3 categories: social activity (e.g., talking with others and playing games), solitary behavior (e.g., working alone on a task and playing alone), and affect-related expression (e.g., smiling and frowning). Results show that depressed Ss (n?=?21) engaged in significantly less social activity and exhibited less affect-related expression than nondepressed peers (n?=?41). Moderate stability in performance was observed over a 4-wk test–retest interval. Overt behavioral measures were consistently related to parent-completed but not to S-completed measures of depression. Findings suggest that depressive symptoms are reflected in diverse behaviors in everyday life. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interactional structure of the supervision interview.

Five supervisors audiotaped Sessions 3, 6, and 9 of their supervision interviews with each of their assigned trainees (N?=?19). A 20-min segment of each of the resulting interviews was coded by trained raters using an adapted version of A. Blumberg's (1970) system for analyzing supervisor–teacher interaction. A quadratic assignment paradigm was used to determine whether the probability that particular behaviors would be emitted by either the supervisor or the trainee, given the behavior emitted previously by the other member of the dyad, was greater or less than the unconditional probability of these particular behaviors being emitted. Results indicate that certain repetitive patterns of verbal behavior occurred in the supervisory interview and that a sequential analysis can effectively describe these interactions. The verbal coding scheme used appeared conceptually relevant to the supervision process. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's attributions of intentions to an invisible agent.

Children ages 3-9 years were informed that an invisible agent (Princess Alice) would help them play a forced-choice game by "telling them, somehow, when they chose the wrong box," whereas a matched control group of children were not given this supernatural prime. On 2 unexpected event trials, an experimenter triggered a simulated unexpected event (i.e., a light turning on/off; a picture falling), and children's behavioral response to these events (i.e., moving their hand to the opposite box) was coded. Results showed a significant Age Group × Experimental Condition interaction; the only children to reliably alter their behavior in response to the unexpected events were the oldest children (M = 7 years 4 months), who were primed with the invisible agent concept. For children's posttest verbal explanations, also, only these children saw the unexpected events as being referential and declarative (e.g., "Princess Alice did it because I chose the wrong box"). Together, these data suggest that children may not regularly begin to see communicative signs as embedded in unexpected events until they are around 7 years of age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality and verbal conditioning effects.

In line with the studies on the conditioning of verbal behavior and their reference to psychotherapy, the present study investigates the effects of Autonomy (as measured by the EPPS) upon verbal conditioning. The hypothesis was made that Autonomy would interfere with susceptibility to verbal conditioning. Ss were interviewed, being asked to talk about themselves; E reinforced (said "um-hmm" and nodded head) under 3 conditions, viz., when S made positive self-statements, negative self-statements, or reinforced randomly throughout the interview. The results indicate that by responding selectively, an interviewer can influence the verbalization of S; in this instance, reinforcement was effective in producing a significant effect on positive self-statements, but not negative ones. Meaning of results are discussed with relation to other research and an attempted formulation. From Psyc Abstracts 36:01:3CJ41B. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)