Effects of structure of marathon group therapy and locus of control on therapeutic outcome.

84 institutionalized female drug addicts were assigned to either direct marathon, nondirect marathon, or no-treatment control groups on the basis of the locus of control scores. Findings suggest that internals are better therapeutic risks than externals, regardless of a direct or nondirect therapist technique. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of structured and unstructured leader roles on internal and external group participants

This study assessed the impact of structured and unstructured leader roles on measures of outcome for Ss who differed on the pretest dimension "locus of control." On the basis of their pretest locus of control scores, Ss were assigned to a structured or an unstructured marathon group. The treatment in the two 16-hour -arathons consisted of a defined series of exercises; the only difference between the two groups was the degree of leader control over member participation. As predicted, internal Ss in the unstructured group rated the leader and the group more psoitively than did external Ss, while the reverse responsivity occured in the structured group. Significant Locus of Control X Treatment interactions indicated that internal and external Ss reflected differential shifts in general anxiety, general depression, and locus of control as a function of treatment. The relationship between changes in self-actualization and locus of control and changes in conflict-handling styles and negative affects differed as a function of locus of control and treatment condition. The overall results coupled with prior findings tentatively support the appropriateness of an unstructured leader role for internal scores and a structured leader role for external scorers.     

Locus of control in Mexicans and Chicanos: The case of the missing fatalist.

Studied the extent to which a stereotype of Mexican or Chicano students as fatalistic is supported by their locus of control scores. Data came from Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale scores of male college students in 4 nations: US (86), Mexico (57), Ireland (47), and West Germany (54). Data show the Mexican Ss to be significantly more internally oriented than Ss from each of the other nations. Locus of control scores (determined with a scale developed by H. Levenson, 1974) for 151 Anglo and 95 Chicano senior high school students were also compared. Scores for Chicanos were nearly identical to those obtained from Anglo students. Only Chicano male high school students not planning to enter college showed any tendency toward a more external locus of control. It is concluded that to the extent a perceived external locus of control would be indicative of a fatalistic outlook, such perception is lacking in most data in Mexican and Chicano respondents. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological effects of intestinal bypass surgery.

In 2 experiments 117 preoperative and postoperative intestinal bypass female patients (mean age 35.2 yrs) were administered the MMPI, Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale, and the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale 4 mo before, and 1 or 2 yrs after, surgery. Postoperative Ss showed a significant increase in physical self-concept though it was significantly below normative values. There was a general elevation of scores of MMPI scales before surgery. Scores on the Depression and Hysteria scales decreased significantly, and scores on most other MMPI scales declined toward normative values after surgery. Before and after surgery, Ss did not differ from normative groups in degree of externality or in their willingness to make socially desirable responses. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Longitudinal study of attitude development in pre-, early, and later adolescent samples.

Examined changes in attitude over a 1-yr period in 382 pre-, early, and later adolescent Ss. Attitudes toward self (i.e., self-esteem—Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory), toward events and one's ability to control them (i.e., locus of control—Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale), and toward achievement (i.e., achievement motivation—Prestatie Motivatie Test) were examined. Results do not support the hypothesis that early adolescence is a time of dramatic change in important attitudes and perceptions. Instead, the amount of attitudinal change evidenced by Ss at each age level varied with the kind of attitude being assessed. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A study of rehabilitation counselors: Locus of control and attitudes toward the poor.

Studied the interrelationships among locus of control, attitudes toward the poor, attitudes toward the supervisor, job satisfaction, and the performance ratings of 90 practicing rehabilitation counselors (mean age 36 yrs). Ss were surveyed with a battery of attitude questionnaires, including Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale and the MacDonald Poverty Scale. Results indicate that Ss with an internal orientation had more positive attitudes toward the poor than Ss with an external orientation. It was further observed that internally oriented Ss received higher performance ratings than the externally oriented. Internal orientation was associated with higher job morale, greater job satisfaction, and more positive attitudes toward supervisors. Implications of the findings are discussed in the context of client-counselor relationships and of the consequence that these data may have in counselor preservice and inservice training. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of marathon group therapy on trait and state anxiety.

Administered the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory to 84 institutionalized female narcotic drug addicts (mean age 25.6 yrs). Ss then participated in marathon-directive, marathon-nondirective, or no-therapy (control) groups. Combining all groups of Ss, State Anxiety (A-State) declined significantly from pretherapy to posttherapy, with the 2 therapy groups showing a far greater decline than the control group. Trait Anxiety (A-Trait) was unchanged from pre- to posttherapy when the scores for all groups were combined. Ss receiving nondirective therapy declined in A-Trait, directive therapy Ss increased, and control Ss showed virtually no change in A-Trait. Results support C. D. Spielberger's notion that trait anxiety reflects a dispositional tendency to respond with anxiety in ego-threat situations and suggest that personality trait measures may be more relevant outcome indicators than measures of transitory mood states in marathon therapy research. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential outcome from automated assertion training as a function of locus of control.

72 low-assertive (Conflict Resolution Inventory) college students, classified as either internal or external in locus of control (Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale), participated in an analog therapy outcome study that assessed whether Ss' locus of control orientations would differentially affect their reactions to an automated assertiveness training procedure. Results indicate that as a group, treatment Ss improved more on all self-report and behavioral measures than either placebo or no-treatment control Ss. As predicted, however, externals in the treatment condition showed significantly greater generalization of the treatment effects to untrained social-skills assessment items than did their internal counterparts. Internals in the treatment condition actually failed to improve on these items relative to the performance of internals in the placebo and no-treatment control conditions. Data also support the predictions that internals in the treatment condition would perceive treatment as taking too much control away from them and would feel more uncomfortable in treatment sessions than externals. Data are interpreted as generally confirming the importance of accounting for the role of patient variables in therapy outcome research. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-administered relaxation training and money deposits in the treatment of recurrent anxiety.

Evaluated 2 self-administered relaxation manuals and a money deposit in the treatment of recurrent, nonphobic anxiety in 61 18–44 yr old Ss from a college population. Ss were randomly assigned to a self-monitoring-only control group or 1 of 4 active treatment conditions. Ss in active conditions received a progressive relaxation manual or a manual that called for the client to devise his or her own relaxation method and were assigned to deposit or nondeposit conditions. Improvement did not differ for the 2 relaxation procedures, but relaxation training groups improved significantly more than self-monitoring-only Ss on both self-report questionnaires and self-monitored measures of anxiety. The deposit did not produce greater amounts of relaxation practice or adherence to the program, although Ss in this condition reported being more relaxed in practice sessions and improved more on 2 pre–post measures of anxiety (including the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory). Ss' locus of control scores (Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale) were significantly related to a number of practice, adherence, and outcome variables, but Ss' ratings of the likelihood that they would practice and benefit from the program proved to be as good predictors. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reported stressful events during developmental periods and their relation to locus of control orientation in college students.

To ascertain whether high levels of stress at different periods of development may be related to an external locus of control (as measured by the Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale), 30 externals (15 males and 15 females) and 30 internals (15 males and 15 females) completed the Life Events Scale. Data indicate that for females, stress in the preschool and pubescent years and for males in the elementary and pubescent years was related to externality. It is suggested that there may be different critical developmental periods for males and females during which high levels of stress may be related to an external locus of control. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of personality–situation congruence in a managerial context: Locus of control and budgetary participation.

46 undergraduate business school students and 48 middle-level management personnel from a large manufacturing company participated in an examination of the impact of locus of control on the relationship between budgetary participation and performance. Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control (LOC) Scale was administered. Results indicate that internally-oriented Ss performed best in conditions of high participation (corresponding to substantial situational control), and externally-oriented Ss performed best in conditions of low participation (corresponding to limited situational control). Ss in these 2 highest performing groups indicated more enjoyment in the experimental task than Ss in less-preferred or incongruent conditions. Findings also show that task performance was subject to the interaction between generalized expectancies in terms of LOC and the source of control in a particular situation. The implications of these results for personnel selection and placement in organizations are discussed. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development and validation of the Health Locus of Control (HLC) Scale.

Describes the Health Locus of Control (HLC) Scale, an area-specific measure of expectancies regarding locus of control developed for prediction of health-related behavior. Two validation studies, one with 44 male and 44 female college students and the other with 34 overweight women, demonstrated the discriminant validity of the HLC in contrast with Rotter's Internal-External Control Scale. In Study 1, HLC internals who value health highly sought more information than other Ss. In Study 2, Ss in weight reduction programs consistent with their locus of control beliefs (as assessed by the HLC scale) were more satisfied with the programs than were "mismatched" Ss. Normative data on the HLC are provided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clients' pretherapy interpersonal attitudes and psychotherapy outcome.

Investigated whether 55 outpatient counseling clients' (aged 16–57 yrs) pretherapy scores on affiliation–hostility and dominance–submission dimensions of the Interpersonal Check List (ICL) would be related to outcome of therapy. Ss, who received an average of 24 sessions, completed the ICL both pre- and posttherapy. Ss whose therapy was successful, as rated by both therapist and client, were significantly more affiliative (less hostile) than were less-than-successful therapy clients both pre- and posttherapy. 21 of 29 Ss whose predominant pretherapy interpersonal stance was characterized as affiliative had successful outcomes, whereas only 10 of 26 Ss whose predominant pretherapy interpersonal stance was characterized as hostile had successful outcomes. No significant differences were observed between outcome groups on the dominance–submission dimension either pre- or posttherapy. However, as expected, a significant number of successful therapy Ss showed a pre- vs posttherapy shift in their interpersonal stances from submission to dominance. Results highlight the reported difficulty of short-term dynamic psychotherapy with hostile clients and suggest the importance of assessing clients' pretherapy interpersonal attitudes as 1 influence on therapeutic process and outcome. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Childhood depression, locus of control, and school achievement

Childhood depression and locus of control (as assessed by a 20-item peer nomination inventory and the Children's Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale, respectively) were studied as they relate to each other and to measures of school achievement and intellectual functioning. Ss were 452 male and 492 female 4th and 5th grade public school children. Measures of achievement included standardized reading and math scores and teacher ratings of work/study habits and school achievement. The Draw-A-Person Test was used as an index of intellectual functioning. Locus of control and depression were positively related. All measures of achievement were negatively related to both external locus of control and depression. The negative relationship also held for IQ, although it was not as strong. The joint association of depression and locus of control with achievement and IQ was evidenced by a significant correlation between canonical variates representing these 2 sets of variables. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Internal-external control and attitude toward disability.

Results in 160 male students divided into internal, middle, and external locus of control groups (Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale) indicate that internal Ss did not differentiate between disabled and nondisabled employees, whereas external Ss did make such a differentiation. The externals' distinction, however, was in evaluating the disabled employee more positively rather than more negatively, as predicted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of divorce on locus of control orientation in adult women: A longitudinal study.

Examined the relation between getting divorced and changes in the individual's locus of control orientation using longitudinal data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Labor Market Experience. The sample contained 1,814 White women aged 32–46 yrs who were in their 1st marriage in 1969. Marital status and locus of control (an 11-item abbreviated version of Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale) were measured in 1969, 1972, and 1977. Based on the literature on locus of control and life events and on divorce, stress, and mental health, it was hypothesized that divorced Ss, in comparison with those who remained married, would show a short-term increase in externality from 1969 to 1972, followed by a return over the next 5 yrs to levels of locus of control comparable to that of the group who remained married. It was also hypothesized that locus of control scores would not predict the likelihood of becoming divorced over the 8-yr period. All 3 hypotheses were confirmed. Findings are discussed in the context of 2 issues: the influence of important life events on locus of control and the causal direction in the well-documented association between divorce and mental health. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Internal-external control and the attribution of responsibility under questionnaire and interview conditions.

Examined the effects of locus of control on attributional behavior in certain feedback situations by assigning 32 undergraduates to success or failure feedback conditions and asking them to complete a questionnaire and interview. A median split was performed on scores obtained from Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale, using H. L. Mirels' (1970) factors of personality internality to identify Ss as internals or externals. Results indicate that externals attributed more responsibility to impersonal external sources than did internals. This pattern was consistent across conditions. Measures of satisfaction and return for a 2nd interview suggested that the Ss were ego-involved in the task. The importance of attributional processes for counseling research and practice is stressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some determinants of unethical decision behavior: An experiment.

Evaluated ethical decision making under different contingencies of reinforcement. A laboratory experiment was devised around a simulated task involving marketing decision making and the possibility of kickback payments to purchasing agents. Ss were 120 graduate business students who made a series of decisions of whether to pay kickbacks or not. When Ss were rewarded for unethical behavior, then unethical behavior was higher than when Ss were not rewarded. Unethical behavior was also higher under increased competition. Four personality variables (locus of control, economic and political value orientation, and Machiavellianism, as assessed by Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale, the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values, and the Mach V Scale) were found to be significant covariates of unethical behavior. Foreign Ss were found to be more unethical than US Ss, but sex was not related to ethical behavior. Overall, results suggest that unethical decision making is a combination of personality, cultural and value orientation, and environmental rewards and punishments. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Health independence and developmental tasks of adulthood in cystic fibrosis.

Examined participation in health behaviors, health locus of control, and negotiation of developmental tasks of adulthood with 75 patients with cystic fibrosis (CF), aged 18–42 yrs old. Ss completed the Multidimensional Health Locus of Control Scale. Results indicate there were a number of health behaviors for which Ss had not yet assumed responsibility, such as managing their medical insurance correspondence and monitoring nutrition. Ss reported that they were more compliant with their medical regimen currently than when first assuming responsibility for their health as adolescents. Multidimensional health locus of control profiles were similar to those of other chronic illness populations. Most Ss appeared to have successfully mastered adult developmental tasks, such as living independently, getting married, and attaining educational or vocational goals. Ss who continued to live with their parents tended to be younger. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)