A reinforcing method for steep clay slopes using a non-woven geotextile

The effect of non-woven geotextile reinforcement on the stability and deformation of two clay test embankments is examined based on their performance for about 3 years for the first embankment and about years for the other. Horizontal planar sheets of a non-woven geotextile are expected to work in three ways: for compaction control; for drainage; for tensile reinforcement. The degree of stability of the steep slopes of the test embankments decreased during heavy rainfall. It is found that the use of non-woven geotextile reinforcement may effectively improve embankment performance. Only the stability analysis in terms of effective stresses can explain the performance of the test embankments. The horizontal creep deformation of the embankments during 2–3 years, which is partly attributed to the creep deformation of the non-woven geotextile, was found to be small. The results of both laboratory bearing capacity tests of a strip footing on a model sand ground reinforced with the non-woven geotextile and plane strain compression tests on sand specimens reinforced with the non-woven geotextile show that the non-woven geotextile gives tensile reinforcement to soils.     

3D coupled mechanical and hydraulic modeling of a geosynthetic-reinforced deep mixed column-supported embankment

Numerical studies were conducted to improve the understanding of the behavior of geosynthetic-reinforced column-supported embankments. Due to the complexity of the problem, so far, consolidation process and three-dimensional patterns of columns have not been well simulated in most published numerical studies. As a result, the time-dependant behavior and the serviceability of this system have not been well evaluated. In this study, a three-dimensional coupled mechanical and hydraulic modeling was conducted using FLAC3D to consider consolidation and three-dimensional arrangement of columns. This study was based on a well-documented bridge approach embankment reinforced by a layer of geotextile and supported by deep mixed (DM) columns. The foundation soils including soft clay and silt, the embankment fill, and the deep mixed columns were modeled as linearly elastic-perfectly plastic materials with Mohr–Coulomb failure criteria. The geotextile reinforcement was simulated by geogrid elements incorporated in the FLAC3D software, which can sustain in-plane tensile force only. The staged construction was simulated by building the embankment in lifts. The duration of each lift was the same as the actual construction time plus the lapse time between two consecutive stages. The development of settlement and tension in the geotextile with time is compared with the long-term monitoring data and yields good agreement. The generation and dissipation of excess pore water pressure during and after construction are presented and discussed.     

桩承式加筋路堤土拱效应试验研究

桩承式加筋路堤中存在土拱效应,它影响着路堤的荷载传递和沉降变形性状,桩土应力比是反应土拱效应的重要参数。本文通过模型试验,研究了桩土相对位移、路堤高度、桩梁净间距、桩梁宽度及水平加筋体等因素对桩土应力比及路堤沉降的影响。结果表明:①桩土应力比随桩土相对位移的发展而变化,存在上限值和下限值;②路堤高度与桩梁净间距之比越大,桩土应力比越大;桩梁宽度与桩梁净间距之比越大,桩土应力比也越大;③使用水平加筋体能提高桩土应力比,提高的幅度与水平加筋体拉伸强度有关;④当路堤高度与桩梁净间距之比小于1.4时,无论是否使用水平加筋体,路堤顶面均会出现明显的差异沉降;当路堤高度与桩梁净间距之比大于1.6时,路堤顶面不会出现明显的差异沉降。该研究成果可为桩承式加筋路堤设计提供有益的参考。     

A case study of geotextile-reinforced embankment on soft ground

Full-scale test embankments, with and without geotextile reinforcement, were constructed on soft Bangkok clay. The performances of these embankments are evaluated and compared with each other on the basis of field measurements and FEM analysis. The analyses of failure mechanisms and the investigations on the embankment stability using undrained conditions were also done to determine the critical embankment height and the corresponding geotextile strain. The high-strength geotextile can reduce the plastic deformation in the underlying foundation soil, increase the collapse height of the embankment on soft ground, and produce a two-step failure mechanism. In this case study, the critical strain in the geotextile corresponding to the primary failure of foundation soils may be taken as 2.5–3% irrespective of the geotextile reinforcement stiffness.     

Effect of reinforcement force distribution on stability of embankments

The effect of reinforcement force distribution on the stability of reinforced embankments is studied. The stability of reinforced embankments is analyzed using the extended generalized method of slices by incorporating the effect of reinforcement. The proposed method is capable of handling features such as a tension crack in the embankment, a varying soil strength profile in the foundation soil and a general slip surface. The method allows the tensile force distribution along the reinforcement to be varied. The stability analysis of reinforced embankments is solved using a spreadsheet optimization tool. The versatility of the proposed method is demonstrated through several cases of reinforced embankments. The results obtained from the proposed method are in good agreement with those obtained from other analytical or numerical methods. The assumed force distribution along the reinforcement appears not to affect the embankment stability in undrained condition. In drained condition, it has some effect on the location of the critical slip surface, but small effect on the factor of safety.     

Investigating the effect of geogrid on stabilization of high railway embankments

This paper investigates the effect of geogrid on controlling the stability and settlement of high railway embankments using laboratory testing and finite element modeling. To do this, five series of embankments with 50?cm height were constructed, at a scale of 1:20 and then were uniformly loaded on the crest in a loading chamber in dimensions of 240?×?235?×?220?cm. In this regard, the embankments of the first series were constructed without geogrid reinforcing layers. Following to preliminary numerical simulations for determining the appropriate level of geogrid layers installation, the second to fifth series of embankments were constructed. These embankments were reinforced with one to four layers of geogrid respectively and finally, the results of their load in terms of settlements were compared. In these studies, the reinforced embankments with a single geogrid layer had 7.14% raise in bearing capacity and 11.24% reduction in settlement respectively, in comparison with the unreinforced embankment. The obtained results for the third to fifth series of embankments were respectively in order of (19, 36.14), (26.3, 52.8) and (28.9, 53.42)%. In the next stage, by modeling the embankments in the PLAXIS 2D software, the results were validated by the values obtained through laboratory models. In continuation of the study, real embankments with heights of 5, 10, 15, and 20?m were simulated and placed under LM71 loading pattern (Eurocode, 2003). In this respect, the impact of important effective parameters such as number of geogrid layer, soil characteristics, embankment dimensions, interface coefficient between soil and geogrid and tensile strength of geogrid on bearing capacity and settlement have been studied. The numerical results like the experimental ones, confirmed the increase in bearing capacity and settlement diminishing with definite increase in the geogrid layers, so that more geogrid layers do not affect these parameters. With respect to improving the soil characteristics and reducing the height of embankments, the FEM models showed decreasing effect of geogrid tensile strength on embankment crest settlement. On the other side, the value of geogrid-soil interface coefficient has minor effect on both settlement and sliding safety factor.     

Comparison of predicted and observed behaviour of two test embankments

The results of finite element analyses of two test embankments, one geotextile reinforced the other a blank control section, are compared with field observations and the results of a simple limit equilibrium analysis. The results of both types of analyses indicate good agreement between predicted and observed failure heights. The geotextile reinforcement was found to significantly increase embankment stability for this case. The finite element analysis provided useful information concerning the development of plastic failure within the soil and the deformations which occurred as tension developed in the reinforcement. It is suggested that this information, which is not provided by simple limit equilibrium analysis, may be essential to the safe design of reinforced embankments.     

Dynamic friction and the seismic performance of geosynthetic interfaces

The stability of geotechnical structures which contain geosynthetic interfaces is closely linked to the shear strength between the geosynthetics themselves, both in static and dynamic conditions. Static friction is the maximum interface shear strength mobilised before displacement, whereas dynamic friction is related to the kinematics of the displacement itself. In polymer materials, dynamic friction may be widely variable, depending on the type, geometry and integrity of the surfaces in contact, as well as on the intensity and time-history of the seismic signal. This means that predicting interface shear strength is not simple. This paper focuses on the evaluation of dynamic interface shear strength between geosynthetics, using the results of both inclined plane tests and shaking table tests; this latter test also provided a means to analyse interface behaviour under the conditions of real seismic records. To this purpose, two common geosynthetic interfaces, which exhibit different behaviour under dynamic loading, were tested. One interface was a smooth HDPE geomembrane in contact with a nonwoven polypropylene geotextile, while the second was a textured HDPE geomembrane in contact with a different type of nonwoven polypropylene geotextile.The test results shows that dynamic friction mobilised during seismic events depends on the relative speed according to the same law outlined by the free sliding tests and by the shaking table tests carried out with sinusoidal base motions. Moreover, for the two different types of studied interfaces dynamic friction may be greater, lesser or equal to the static friction and the assumption of a constant value of dynamic friction does not lead to an accurate prediction of the seismic displacements under various earthquakes.     

Geosynthetic reinforced piled embankment modeling using discrete and continuum approaches

Understanding the load transfer mechanism can support engineers having more economical design of geosynthetic reinforced piled embankments. This study aims to investigate the load transfer mechanisms by two different numerical methods including the Discrete Element Method (DEM) and the Finite Difference Method (FDM). The DEM model adopts (a) discrete particles to simulate the micro-structure of the granular materials and (b) coupled discrete element – finite element method (DEM-FEM) to capture the interaction between granular materials and geotextiles. On the other hand, the FDM model uses an advanced constitutive soil model considering the hardening and softening behaviour of the granular materials. The numerical results show that the geotextiles can only contribute to the vertical loading resistance in cases where the soils between piles are soft enough. In terms of design, an optimum value of the geotextile tensile stiffness can be found considering the load, the soft soil stiffness and the thickness of the embankment. Both the DEM and the FDM show that a high geotextile tensile stiffness is not required since an extra stiffness will slightly contribute to the efficiency of the geosynthetic reinforced piled embankments. Nevertheless, both models are useful to optimize the design of geosynthetic reinforced piled embankments.     

刚性桩加固软弱地基上路堤稳定性问题（Ⅱ）——群桩条件下的分析

针对刚性桩支承路堤，笔者已进行的对单桩位于路堤下不同位置时路堤稳定性的研究表明，复合抗剪强度极限平衡法不能反映不同位置单桩的强度及刚度对路堤稳定性的影响以及桩的弯曲破坏机理，将显著高估路堤稳定性。通过对群桩条件下刚性桩加固路堤分别采用三维和二维数值分析方法，研究了路堤填筑及趋于失稳破坏过程中，桩、土的内力与变形规律、桩的破坏形式等。结果表明：群桩条件下，不同位置的刚性桩的破坏模式不同，对路堤稳定性的贡献机理也相应不同，弯曲破坏比剪切破坏更易于发生，剪切破坏并非是桩最危险的破坏方式；提出了考虑路堤趋于失稳破坏过程中桩弯曲破坏的cut-off退出方法，在进行数值分析时可反映路堤趋于失稳过程中桩的破坏形式，从而合理地评估路堤稳定性。对素混凝土桩加固路堤的稳定分析，提出了桩可使用抗剪强度概念，并提出了按桩体可使用抗剪强度采用极限平衡法进行路堤稳定分析的方法。     

Friction characteristics of a nonwoven geotextile and peat

Embankments on peat present a difficult problem for present day highways because of their heavy traffic loads. It has been customary to avoid peat lands when planning the construction of a highway, and this is still the preferred solution. However, as land becomes more scarce and more areas become populated the choice of highway gets narrower. The present note pertains to peat from the Gué de Constantine area, near Algiers (Algeria), and also to reinforced peat. The site is to be developed to accommodate an extension to the eastern highway. Use of a geotextile has been recommended for the improvement of the embankment foundation and friction characteristics obtained from shear tests of a nonwoven geotextile in a peat are presented and discussed.     

Practical seismic fragility estimation of Japanese railway embankments using three seismic intensity measures

This study proposes a practical fragility estimation equation for Japanese standard models of railway embankments using the peak ground acceleration, peak ground velocity, and Arias intensity. The analytical models were implemented as unreinforced and geosynthetic-reinforced embankment models. A sensitivity analysis of the seismic fragility estimation of the embankment models was conducted on various embankment heights, average values of friction angles in the backfill soil, and tensile strengths of the primary reinforcement. Consequently, a unique formula for the fragility function in the presence of different seismic intensities was successfully presented. The parameters of the fragility function were successfully estimated using commonly used design parameters, such as the embankment height, average value of the friction angle of the backfill soil, and average value of the tensile strength. Additionally, another sensitivity analysis using different seismic databases was conducted to explore the effect of the seismic database on the fragility curve estimation of railway embankments. As a result, using different seismic databases, different fragility curves were obtained. These results highlight the importance of checking the sensitivity of the seismic database when developing the fragility curve.     

基于离心模型试验的桩帽网结构路基桩端持力层效应研究

为了考察桩端持力层强度对桩帽网结构路基(地基)承载特性的影响,设计了4组不同桩端持力层状态的离心模型试验,测试了地基变形、加筋垫层拉力和路堤基底压力等数据。测试数据表明:①桩端持力层强度降低,地基由稳定向出现桩底明显刺入再到出现桩端持力层局部剪切破坏方面转化;②桩端持力层强度提高,地基变形减小,路基中心桩底刺入及地表沉降、坡脚地基水平变形均值与持力层承载力的关系曲线可用幂函数描述;③桩端持力层强度越高,桩体承载集中效应与桩间土承载减载效应越明显;④路基中心附近地表沉降与路基面覆盖范围筋带拉力均值间的关系曲线可用二次多项式描述,考虑了路堤横向滑移因素的筋带拉力计算值与实测较接近;⑤端承摩擦桩型的桩端持力层强度提高,筋带所受拉力减小;⑥布设袋装砂井,能加快地基的排水固结,提高桩端持力层承载力,增强地基稳定性。     

土工织物加筋堤坝软基的非线性分析

通过非线性有限单元法分析了堤坝下软基土工织物的加筋效果,土与土工织物的界面强度对加筋效果的影响,多层土工织物的加筋效果等问题,得出了最优加筋层数、加筋垫层应力扩散效果等一系列对工程设计有用的结论     

软基上加筋防波堤的离心模型试验

通过离心模型试验，研究在有无土工织物加筋垫层条件下防波堤和软基的变形性状，得到了地基沉降、隆起及水平位移的分布规律。提出了一种量测筋材张力的新方法，对土工织物在离心试验过程中的应力状态进行了测试。研究结果表明：土工织物加筋垫层能有效地减小地基的侧向位移，有一定的加筋效果：土工织物张力的发挥水平与堤坝的沉降量密切相关，工作状态下其最大强度发挥水平约为52％。     

石灰改良土填筑边坡合理坡率的研究

石灰改良土填筑的路基,强度高、稳定性良好,与传统路基相比,坡率更大、路基土方工程量和造价更低,但石灰改良土填筑路堤结构边坡坡率的确定方法尚不明确。阐述了石灰改良土边坡强度的形成机理及微观特性,利用Geo-Slope软件建立理想边坡模型并对边坡稳定性随着边坡坡率以及边坡高度变化的规律进行了探讨,结合某省两个不同场区的边坡工程实例,总结了不同坡率和高度对工程稳定的影响并提出了合理的坡率。     

Evaluation of Interface Shear Strength between Geosynthetics Under Wet Condition

This paper presents direct shear testing data for interfaces between a nonwoven geotextile or two types of geosynthetic clay liners (GCL) (reinforced and unreinforced) and two types of geomembranes (smooth and textured). In this study, the effect of moisture on interface shear behavior was investigated by performing shear tests in both dry and wet (or hydrated) conditions because the geosynthetic interfaces in a landfill are easily exposed to rain, leachate and groundwater beneath the liners. The degree of strength reduction with increasing displacement and the effect of the normal stress level on friction angles were examined, and the modified hydration method applied for the GCL was also validated. The test results showed that the normal stress level, interface water presence and hydration methods dominated the interface shear strength and behavior. The relationship between the peak secant friction angle and the normal stress demonstrated that the friction angle decreased with increasing normal stress, implying that the shear strength for safe design should be determined by using the maximum value of the normal stress applied in landfills. Finally, comparisons with a few published test results were presented and some design implications for the geosynthetic-installed landfills were discussed.     

软土地基加筋石灰土路堤离心模型试验数值模拟

 建立以离心试验几何尺寸的有限元数值模型,模拟变加速度加载下软土地基加筋石灰土路堤中的位移、土压力、孔隙水压力和加筋拉力随时间的变化规律,并与离心模型试验结果进行比较;同时,采用该数值模型计算了不加筋、加1,2层筋时路堤和地基位移情况。计算结果表明,加筋路堤沉降量、土压力、孔隙水压力和加筋拉力的计算值与离心试验实测值吻合很好或基本一致,表明该数值模型是合理的;不加筋路堤的中心沉降量和坡脚下地基水平位移比加1层筋时明显大一些,两者在加速度为100.0 g时地面坡脚处的水平位移差值达近2 mm,而加2层筋时位移与加1层筋接近。     

Internal stability analysis of reinforced convex highway embankments considering seismic loading

The seismic internal stability of reinforced, convex embankments that are three-dimensional in nature is analyzed. A limit equilibrium based three-dimensional rotational failure mechanism is adopted to calculate the required reinforcement strength to maintain the stability of convex embankments. The results are presented in the form of stability charts and the effects of various parameters on the three-dimensional solution are investigated. The calculation of the required strength and length of reinforcement is demonstrated by two examples using an approach consistent with AASHTO (2012). Comparing the strengths obtained under two and three-dimensional conditions, the results show that the two-dimensional results are more conservative with respect to the strength of reinforcement, but could be unconservative considering the required length of reinforcement, especially for reinforced convex embankments with gentle turning angles. The influence of seismicity causes greater three-dimensional effects when the reinforced convex embankment is vertical, but less so when the slope inclination is gentle.     

黄土地区非对称公路路堤稳定性分析

利用FLAC3D软件建立了非对称黄土公路路堤数值分析模型,在强度折减法的基础上,按M-C强度理论分析抗剪切强度参数内摩擦角和黏聚力对路堤稳定性的影响。通过对比不同加筋层数、筋土界面参数和荷载形式下加筋路堤的安全系数和剪应变增量云图,归纳总结出上述参数对路堤稳定性的影响规律。模拟结果表明:内摩擦角和黏聚力对路堤稳定性影响规律相似,安全系数和塑性贯通区均随剪切强度参数增大而增大。格栅加筋效果随着加筋层数和界面参数增大而增大,但增加幅度逐渐减小并最终趋于稳定。此外,非对称荷载作用下路堤稳定性较均布荷载的差。