Effects of wheat flour supplemented with soy protein concentrate on the rheology,microstructure and water mobility of protein-fortified precooked noodles

Wheat flour was supplemented with different levels of soy protein concentrate (SPC) and applied to precooked noodles for protein fortification whose quality attributes were characterised in terms of rheology, microstructure and water mobility. The wheat flours with high levels of SPC showed lower enthalpy values and higher temperatures derived from starch gelatinisation. They also exhibited lower values of the pasting viscosity and dynamic viscoelastic parameters. The mixolab measurements demonstrated that the supplement with SPC was effective in raising the water absorption and dough stability of wheat flour. In addition, the use of SPC-supplemented wheat flours produced precooked noodles with tight and dense structures, which were confirmed by scanning electron microscopic analysis. These microstructural changes were consequently related to higher maximum resistance to extension and lower extensibility of the noodles. However, the SPC-supplemented wheat flours did not significantly affect the cooking loss of the noodles. Furthermore, three water components with different mobility were observed in the precooked noodles whose spin-spin relaxation times were distinctly reduced with increasing levels of SPC. Overall similarities in the sensory noodle attributes were detected as wheat flour was supplemented with SPC at a level of 8% (w/w).     

Properties of some citrus seeds. Part 2. Functional properties of seed flours

Water and fat absorption, gelation, protein solubility, emulsification and foam capacities of flours from citron, orange and mandarin seeds were determined. The protein solubility of the flours was increased as sodium chloride concentration increased up to 0.8 M for citron, mandarin and mixture seed flours and 1 M for orange seed flour, then decreased at higher concentrations. The minimum solubility was sharp for mandarin and orange seed flours, while, it was broader for mixture and citron seed flours. The least concentration for forming gel was 6%, 6.5% and 7% for mandarin, orange and both citron and mixture seed samples, respectively. The flours of orange and mandarin seeds were the highest and lowest in water absorption capacity. Also, the highest value of fat absorption capacity was noticed for citron and lastly for mandarin on flour basis. The emulsification and foam capacity-pH patterns were similar to protein solubility-pH profiles for all citrus seed flours. Foam capacity of mandarin and mixture seed flour were lower than that of citron and orange seed flours. The emulsification and foam capacities patterns in sodium chloride solution showed an increase up to 0.6 M and then decreased in all citrus seed flours. Foam stability of citrus seed flours was increased with sodium chloride concentration up to about 0.6 M and then decreased. The foam stability of all citrus seed flours at pH 4.5 was very poor but at pH 2, it was comparable to that at pH 8.     

Functional properties of raw and precooked taro (Colocasia esculenta) flours

Functional properties such as bulk density, water and oil absorption, foam capacity and stability, and viscosity of five raw and precooked taro ( Colocasia esculenta ) flours were studied. Proximate analyses of the taro flours indicated they were low in fat, protein and ash, but rich in starch and total dietary fibre. Heat processing affected the functional properties of taro flour. the raw taro flours were slightly different from each other for the tests on bulk density, water retention, and viscosity. On the other hand, the cooked flours showed no significant differences for the tests on oil retention, gelation and foaming.     

Effects of particle size in wasted bread flour properties

Bread is wasted at different stages in the food value chain, mainly in industry and retail markets. Wasted bread can be milled into flour to be used in the elaboration of other food products. Milling can generate flours with different particle sizes that influence their properties. This study analysed the effect of particle size (200, 500 and 1000 μm) on the hydration, pasting and gel properties of flours elaborated with four different stale breads. Bread flours show a higher cold water absorption capacity and a lower oil absorption capacity than wheat flour. No differences in water absorption properties after heating were observed. The viscosity curves of bread flours presented lower values than wheat flour curves, and the gels obtained were weaker. Bread flour properties were not influenced by different particle sizes. Therefore, a less aggressive milling, with a lower energy cost, can generates flours with properties similar to finer flours.     

Functional properties of barinas nut flour (Caryodendron orinocense Karst., Euphorbiaceae) compared to those of soybean

Protein solubility studies showed that the protein of Caryodendron orinocense flour was soluble at both acidic and basic pH, and NaCl (0.5 m) increased the solubility of all flours tested. The water absorption capacity was less, while the oil absorption was higher for Caryodendron flour than soybean flour. Both flours presented similar emulsion capacity and stability, while the foaming capacity was much smaller for Caryodendron flours than soybean flour; NaCl increased the foaming capacity of soybean flour; these results might be due to differences in protein concentration. NaCl concentrations greater than 0.25 m increased the emulsifying activity in Caryodendron flours, but did not influence the emulsion stability. The lowest gelation concentration and temperature of gelling were similar to that of soybean flour. These results suggest that Caryodendron flour might have some similar uses as soybean flour in the food industry.     

Functional Properties of Defatted and Detoxified Madhuca (Madhuca butyraceae) Seed Flour

Functional properties of defatted and detoxified Madhuca (Madhuca butyraceae) seed flours were determined and compared with those of soybean flour. Soybean and detoxified Madhuca flours had higher water absorption capacities than defatted Madhuca flour. Due to the presence of saponins, the defatted Madhuca flour showed higher foaming capacity than the soybean and detoxified Madhuca flours.     

Functional Properties of Wheat-Bean Composite Flours

Functional properties of wheat flour and its blends with six bean flours at three levels of replacement (10, 20, and 30%) were investigated. Water and oil absorption, foaming capacity and stability, and emulsifying activity and stability increased with increasing levels of bean flours in the blends. Composite flours had higher pasting properties compared to those of wheat flour as measured in the Brabender Viscoamylograph. As the level of bean flour in the composite was increased, farinograph absorption and mixing tolerance index increased, whereas mixing time and dough stability decreased.     

Nutrients and antinutrients in cowpea and horse gram flours in comparison to chickpea flour: Evaluation of their flour functionality

The nutrient composition, antinutritional factors and flour functionality of cowpea and horse gram flours were evaluated in comparison to chickpea flour characteristics. Protein content of these flours was in the range of 22.5−24.1%. Fat content was highest in chickpea (4.8%) and lowest in horse gram (1.4%). Resistant starch and phytic acid were significantly higher in cowpea flour. Compared to chickpea and cowpea, horse gram has more carbohydrate, dietary fibre, polyphenols and trypsin inhibitor activity and less oligosaccharides. Horse gram and chickpea flours had the highest water and oil absorption capacities with values of 148.1% and 109.3%, respectively. Although emulsion activity (58.1%) and stability (52.0%) were superior in horse gram, foaming capacity and foam stability were significantly higher in chickpea and cowpea flours, respectively. These results suggest the potential utility of cowpea and horse gram flours as substitutes for chickpea flour in some food products formulations.     

Effect of precooking time and drying temperature on the physico-chemical characteristics and in-vitro carbohydrate digestibility of taro flour

Achu is a thick porridge obtained by cooking and pounding taro (Colocasia esculenta) corms and cormels in a mortar. This study was undertaken with the objective of producing precooked taro flour that can be used in the preparation of achu. Taro slices were precooked to times of 0, 20, 45 and 90 min and dried in an air convection oven at varying temperatures of 50, 60, 70 or 80 °C before milling into flour which was then analysed for its water absorption capacity (WAC), water solubility index, emulsion activity and stability, bulk density, foam capacity and least gelation concentration (LGC). Achu made from the flours were equally analysed for their relative penetrometric index, bulk density and colour. The results showed that precooking induced significant (P<0.05) decrease in foam capacity, penetrometric index, and increase in LGC, emulsion stability and WAC. The drying temperature also induces significant reduction in emulsion capacity and stability, penetrometric index, and increase in LGC, WAC. Long precooking time (>45 min) and drying temperature (>60 °C) induced significant reduction of the in-vitro carbohydrate digestibility of taro achu.     

Chemical composition and functional properties of raw and roasted Nigerian benniseed (Sesamum indicum) and bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean)

Benniseed and bambara groundnut seeds were roasted at 80 and 120 °C for 10–60 min. For both flours, the effects of roasting temperature and time on selected functional properties and chemical composition were determined, as were the effects of pH on the emulsification capacity and nitrogen solubility. The chemical constituents of the raw flours were present at higher concentrations than those of the roasted flours except for fat and ash. Protein concentrates of both flours contained 80.5–81.5% crude protein as the major constituent. Nitrogen solubility was lowest at pH 4.0 for raw and roasted benniseed flour and pH 5.0 for raw and roasted bambara groundnut flour. Roasting generally lowered the nitrogen solubility and increased the water and oil absorption capacities while decreasing the foaming capacity and emulsification capacity of both flours.     

Comparison of hot air-drying and freeze-drying on the physicochemical properties and antioxidant activities of pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata Duch.) flours

Freeze-drying and hot air-drying were applied in the preparation of pumpkin flours to investigate the effects of drying methods on the antioxidant activities and physicochemical properties. The antioxidant activities of methanol extracts from pumpkin flours were studied in terms of total antioxidant activity, reducing power, free radical scavenging, superoxide anion radical scavenging and metal chelating activities. Hot air-dried pumpkin flour showed stronger antioxidant activities than freeze-dried flour. The percentage inhibition of peroxidation in linoleic acid system by 15 mg mL⁻¹ extracts from hot air-dried and freeze-dried pumpkin flours was found to be 92.4% and 86.1% after 120 h of incubation, respectively. Hot air-dried pumpkin flour exhibited higher reducing power, free radical scavenging and metal chelating activities than freeze-dried flour. This study also indicated that freeze-drying significantly reduced the browning and preserved the redness of pumpkin flours. Hot air-drying reduced the oil absorption capacity, water absorption and porosity of pumpkin flours, while it markedly increased the water solubility and bulk density.     

PROCESSING AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF YAM BEANS (SPHENOSTYLIS STENOCARPA)

The proximate and selected functional properties of five flours from yam bean (YB) made after the grains were not processed (raw) and processed as boiled, fermented, roasted and malted, were determined. The functional properties were water and fat absorption, gelation, emulsification and whippability. An improvement was observed for protein content of flours processed beans compared to raw flour. Fermentation improved the oil content of the flour. The emulsifying and foaming capacities (50.7 and 40.20%, respectively) observed for raw flour were significantly higher than those for the flours from processed bean. Gelation was significantly (P < 0.05) increased and decreased by fermentation and malting of the bean, respectively. The water absorption capacities ranged from 131.9% in raw flour to 218.8% in flour boiled beans. There were no significant (P > 0.05) differences in the fat absorption capacities of all flours except for the one of fermented beans (0.40 mL/g), which was significantly lower than the value (0.73 mL/g) obtained for the flour from boiled beans. Although a high foaming capacity was observed for raw flour, it was less stable when compared with that of the processed bean flours. Overall, YB flour was found to exhibit good functional properties, and has a great potential for use as an ingredient in selected food systems.     

Effect of solvents and supercritical-CO2 extraction of lipids on physico-chemical,functional, pasting and rheological properties of hard,medium hard and soft wheat varieties

This study was conducted to compare the effect of lipids removal using supercrital-CO₂ extraction and organic solvents (hexane and isopropanol) from hard and soft wheat flour varieties. Flours were evaluated for physicochemical properties (protein, ash, hunter colour), sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, foaming properties, water and oil absorption capacity, pasting, farinographic and dynamic rheology. Protein content of flours increased after defatting and supercritical fluid extracted (SCE) wheat flours showed the highest increase. SCE flours showed higher peak viscosity than native and hexane extracted (HE) and isopropyl alcohol extracted (IPAE) flours. Functional properties improved upon defatting and the highest increase in functional properties was observed for SCE flours. Empirical and fundamental rheological measurements were affected by defatting and SCE flours showed the highest change in visco-elasticity. SC-CO2 was proved better alternative technique over conventional organic solvent methods to remove lipids from flours that brought desirable changes in some functional properties.     

Effects of Acylation of Defatted Cottonseed Flour with Various Acid Anhydrides on Protein Extractability and Functional Properties of Resulting Protein Isolates

Maleylation, succinylation, dimethylglutarylation, and sodium sulfite treatment of cottonseed flour increased protein extraction from the flour in suspension, and precipitated more protein in the extract at pH 4.0, compared to unmodified flour processed through conventional methods. However, acetylation decreased protein extraction and precipitation at this pH. Protein isolates from succinylated, maleylated and dimethylglutarylated flours were highly water-soluble, and did not coagulate by heating. Acetylation decreased heat coagulability of the resulting protein isolate, but did not affect water solubility of the isolate. Treatment of the flour with sodium sulfite markedly increased heat coagulability of the isolate, and decreased its solubility. Oil absorption capacity of the isolate was increased slightly by dimethylglutarylation, but other treatments did not affect the capacity significantly. Sensitivity of proteins in isolates to calcium ions was not affected by acylation or sodium sulfite treatment of the flour.     

Effect of extrusion conditions on the physical properties of desi chickpea-barley extrudates and quality attributes of their resulting flours

In this study, response surface methodology (RSM) was used to evaluate the effect of extrusion conditions on physical properties of chickpea:barley extrudates (60:40), and the resulting protein quality of their flours. Barrel temperature (150–170°C) and moisture content (16–20%) were chosen as independent variables to generate a central composite design. Hardness, expansion index, bulk density, and protein quality were analyzed as responses parameters. Expansion was found to be higher at lower temperatures and higher moisture for the 60:40 chickpea:barley blend; bulk density became reduced with increased moisture; and hardness was found to increase at higher temperatures and lower moistures. The protein quality of their resulting flours was found to be greater at moisture contents higher than 16%. The composition, protein quality, and functional attributes were also examined for raw and precooked flours of chickpea, barley, and their blend at the center point of the RSM design (18% moisture, 160°C). Extrusion also leads to improved water hydration capacities and reduced viscosities for precooked individual and blended flours relative to the raw. Moreover, extrusion also led to improved protein quality in the chickpea and chickpea-barley blend, but not the individual barley flour.     

Proximate composition and functional properties of African breadfruit kernel and flour blends

African breadfruit seeds (ABS) were toasted at 80 and 120°C for varied period of times. The effects of the toasting temperature and time on selected functional properties of the seed flours were determined. Flour blends were prepared from the toasted ABS and wheat flours. The chemical composition and functional properties of the blends were determined. Toasting increased the water absorption capacity (WAC) of ABS flours with increased toasting time at both toasting temperatures. The oil absorption capacity (OAC) on the other hand, increased up to 20 min of seed toasting at both 80 and 120°C and thereafter decreased. At both 80 and 120°C, the foaming capacity (FC) of the seeds decreased with increased toasting time, with greater decreased at 120°C. The protein, fat, ash and crude fibre contents of the flour blends increased while carbohydrate and moisture contents decreased with increased levels of toasted African breadfruit flour (TABF) in the blends. The TABF showed significantly higher (P<0.05) WAC, OAC, FC and emulsion activity (EA) than wheat flour (WF). These properties increased with increased amounts of TABF in the blends. All the flour blends exhibited a least gelation concentration of 8% (W/V). The bulk density (g/cm³) and wettability values of flour blends varied from 0.74 to 0.84 and 19 to 31, respectively. Heating increased the swelling capacity of the flour blends.     

Physicochemical and functional properties of full‐fat and defatted Moringa oleifera kernel flour

Full‐fat and defatted Moringa oleifera kernel flours were analysed for their functional properties. The effect of pH and NaCl concentrations on the functional properties of the flours was investigated following standard procedures. The protein content of full‐fat and defatted flour was 36.18 and 62.76 g/100 g, respectively. The concentrations of other proximate constituents of the defatted flour were higher than those of the full‐fat flour. Nitrogen solubility was lowest at pH of 4.0 and 9.0, respectively, with maximum solubility occurring at pH of 6.0. Defatting increased the water absorption and fat absorption capacities of Moringa oleifera kernel flour. The foaming capacity and foam stability of the defatted flour were 86.0% and 82.0 mL, whereas that of full‐fat flour were 20.6% and 18.5 mL respectively. The defatted flour showed better emulsification (97.2 mL g^?1) than full‐fat flour (66.0 mL g^?1). The least gelation concentration of the defatted and full‐fat flours was 14% and 16% (w/v) respectively. Moringa oleifera kernel flour can be a valuable source of vegetable protein in fortified food products formulation.     

Physical and functional characteristics of selected dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) flours

Many varieties of dry beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) are available with entirely different physico-chemical and sensory characteristics. Selected dry bean varieties (red kidney, small red kidney, cranberry and black) were processed into flour and analyzed for the physico-chemical and functional characteristics. The bulk density of the beans flours varied significantly (p < 0.05) from 0.515 g/ml for black bean flour to 0.556 g/ml for red kidney bean flour. The small red kidney bean flour had the highest water absorption capacity (2.65 g/g flour) while black bean flour showed the lowest at 2.23 g/g flour. Significant differences were observed for oil absorption capacities of bean flours, which ranged from 1.23 g/g for small red kidney bean flour to 1.52 g/g for red kidney bean flour. The bean flours emulsion capacity and stability and foaming capacity and stability also varied significantly and was variety-dependent. The highest apparent viscosity, 0.462 Pa.s, was recorded for small red kidney bean flour whereas black bean flour exhibited the lowest value of 0.073 Pa.s at 30 g/100 ml water content in the flour dispersions. The force-deformation curves for doughs from different bean flours showed that black bean flour had the highest peak force or hardness value of 90.7 N followed by doughs from cranberry, small red kidney and red kidney bean flours. The results of this study offer useful data on bean flours' potential uses in different food products.     

Physicochemical,nutritional and functional properties of marama bean flour

Marama bean is a protein-rich, underutilised, drought-tolerant legume in sub-Saharan Africa. Its utilisation may be increased through value addition into protein-rich flours. Defatted flour from unheated and dry-heated (150 °C/20 min) whole marama beans (UMF and HMF) were analysed for physicochemical and protein-based functional properties. Heating significantly increased in vitro protein digestibility of marama bean flour. Of functional importance are the high levels of tyrosine present in marama bean flours. Heating significantly reduced protein solubility and emulsifying capacity of marama bean flours whilst water absorption capacity was improved. Foaming capacity was not affected by heating. UMF could be useful in food systems requiring high emulsifying capacity, but would not be suitable for applications requiring high water absorption and foaming capacity. Due to its high protein contents, marama bean flour could be used to increase the protein quality of cereal-based foods to help alleviate protein-energy nutrition in the region.     

Development of gluten-free fresh egg pasta analogues containing buckwheat

To improve the use of common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), characterized by interesting nutritional properties, it could be used in pasta formulations. In particular, as buckwheat is devoid of the gluten-forming proteins, it might be an ingredient for celiac patient food. The aim of this study was to develop both fresh egg pastas integrated with buckwheat and fresh egg pasta analogues classifiable as gluten-free, based on buckwheat and rice flours. Matter loss in the cooking water and weight increase during cooking of buckwheat pasta were higher than those of a reference sample made of common wheat flour. As buckwheat integration increased, sample break strain was significantly lower, as a result of the progressive reduction in gluten content. In the production of gluten-free pasta analogues, wheat flour was substituted with rice flour, precooked rice flour or pregelatinized rice starch. Since samples containing precooked rice flour gave the best results, in terms of workability, break strain and weight increase during cooking, they were also produced on an industrial scale. Industrial gluten-free fresh egg pasta analogues were tougher and less deformable in comparison with the laboratory-produced samples. These results were determined by the presence of the double thermal pasteurisation treatment, which allows to obtain a better structure of the product, showing also a lower matter loss during cooking.