A stated preference analysis comparing the Analytical Hierarchy Process versus Choice Experiments

Our paper compares individual preferences for attributes and levels of an agro-food product using two different methodologies. A key question is whether different results are obtained when asking consumers what they “prefer” versus what they would “buy”. Within this context, we compare empirical results obtained from Choice Experiments (CE) versus the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) due to their capacity to simulate the “purchasing” and “theoretical” stated preferences, respectively. We utilize a survey of restaurateurs’ stated preferences to include rabbit meat in their menus in Catalonia (Spain) in this exploratory study. Results demonstrate similarities and differences in the stated preferences for attributes and attribute levels with a 55.6% coincidence in their ranking between methods. Utility variation between levels in both approaches follows a similar shape for two of the three analyzed attributes.     

Free listing: A method to gain initial insight of a food category

In free listing you ask informants to “list all the X you know about” or inquire “what kinds of X are there”; where X might be what is eaten at breakfast time, movie stars or dairy products. In this study 184 15–18 year old adolescents from a small town in Argentina were asked to list all the fruits they knew, whether they had tasted them or not and whether they liked them or not. Middle/high-income respondents listed significantly higher number of fruits than lower-income respondents: 18.1 and 16.6, respectively. Fruits listed most frequently were: banana, orange, apple, grape, peach, pear, melon, strawberry, kiwi, mandarin and watermelon. It can be hypothesized that elements listed close together by a respondent are more associated than elements listed farther apart. The hypothesis that the difference in rank between two fruits would provide a natural measure of the distance between them in the mind of each respondent was corroborated by cluster analysis.     

‘Liking’, ‘Buying’, ‘Choosing’ and ‘Take Away’ preference tests for varying degrees of hedonic disparity

Paired preference tests of liking require consumers to specify which of two foods are preferred or whether there is no preference. For ‘Buying’ preference tests, consumers specify which of two foods they are more likely to buy or whether they might buy either or neither. For ‘Choosing’ preference tests, consumers specify which of two foods they are more likely to choose when offered both, or whether they might choose both or neither. The first test is designed to predict greater degrees of liking, the second to predict buying behavior and the third to predict choice behavior. Yet, test results may not necessarily predict ‘real life’ behavior once consumers have left the testing situation; the ‘test’ preferences may not be ‘operational’. To validate the predictive ability of such tests, consumer behavior should be monitored for several months. Another approach is to allow consumers to take away some of the foods used in the test and observe what they take away. Consumers of potato chips were required to taste chips whose flavor and appearance were obviously different. A first group (N = 107) were given ‘Liking’, ‘Buying’ and ‘Choosing’ preference tests for two palatable types of chip. After the test, out of sight of the experimenter, consumers were presented with two rows of plain plastic ‘snack’ bags, filled with the chips used in the test. They could take away either two bags of the same type of chip (a ‘Take Away’ preference) or one of each type (no ‘Take Away’ preference) or take neither (rejection). They were also subtly questioned regarding whether they were going to consume the chips themselves or were going to share them with friends. A second group (N = 103) repeated the experiment. However, for these consumers, one type of chip was unpalatable. In general, ‘Buying’ preferences corresponded more to ‘Take Away’ preferences while ‘Liking’ and ‘Choosing’ preferences showed little correspondence. For the palatable chips, the preferences were spread more evenly than for the case where one type of chip was undesirable. In this latter case, approximately 50% of consumers were consistent over all tests in choosing the palatable chip. This might suggest operational preferences. ‘Take Away’ preferences suggested low predictability for paired preference tests of liking, choosing and buying. ‘Take Away’ preferences are not a substitute for monitoring consumer behavior for several months but they are a step in the right direction.     

Paired preference tests: ‘Liking’, ‘Buying’ and ‘Take Away’ preferences

Paired preference tests of liking require consumers to specify which of two foods are preferred or whether there is no preference. For ‘Buying’ preference tests, consumers specify which of two foods they are more likely to buy or whether there is no operational difference in likelihood to buy. The former test is designed to predict choice behaviour, the latter, buying behaviour. To validate the predictive ability of such tests, consumer choice and buying behaviour should be observed for several months. Another approach is to allow consumers to take away some of the foods used in the test and observe what they take. Consumers of potato chips were required to taste chips whose flavour and appearance were obviously different. A first group (N = 109) were given a traditional paired preference test of liking. A second group (N = 108) were given a preference test of buying. A third group (N = 101) were given both tests. After the test, out of sight of the experimenter, consumers were presented with two rows of plain plastic ‘snack’ bags, filled with the chips used in the test. They could take away either two bags of the same type of chip (a ‘Take Away’ preference) or one of each type (no ‘Take Away’ preference) or take neither (rejection). ‘Liking’ preferences predicted what was taken away for only 48% of consumers for the first group and 45% (third group). For ‘Buying’ preferences, the correspondence was 56% (second group) and 60% (third group). Using buying tests separately or together with liking produced some differences. More reliably, approximately 60% of consumers in all groups chose one bag of each. ‘Take Away’ preferences suggested low predictability for paired preference tests of liking and buying. ‘Take Away’ preferences are not a substitute for following a consumer for several months but they are a step in the right direction.     

Providing a food choice option increases children’s liking of fish as part of a meal

Fish consumption in Norway is lower than currently recommended by health authorities. Parents report various barriers to fish consumption, including children’s dislike of and avoidance to choose fish and resulting family conflicts. Often children are served one main meal option. However, giving children a choice between two types of meals with fish may increase liking of fish.The aim of this study was to experimentally investigate the effect of choice possibility on liking evaluation of fish by children.Two groups of children (n = 131) were compared: group 1 (n = 76) without a choice possibility for a fish dish (cod or salmon) and group 2 (n = 55), with a choice possibility between cod and salmon dishes. The experiment took place in a canteen where children evaluated liking of the fish in the dish. Children also reported preferences, consumption frequency and psychosocial development characteristics.Giving children a choice between the cod and salmon dishes led to a more positive liking evaluation of the fish in the dish. Children with developed choice ability reported lower liking evaluations for fish in a dish they were given without a choice possibility. General liking of fish increased liking evaluations whether the children were given a choice possibility or not.These results may be explained by a positive bias the children have towards choices they make, especially when they believe they are able to be more autonomous. These results indicate that children may learn to like fish more if they are included in the process of deciding what to have for dinner.     

Amaranth starch-rich fraction properties modified by extrusion and fluidized bed heating

Today amaranth is a promising food source yet its technological properties are not well known. The modification of some properties of an amaranth starch-rich fraction by a controlled heating is studied. This fraction was obtained by the differential milling of Amaranthus cruentus grains.Tests were performed by both fluidized bed and extrusion heating, according to a factorial experimental design of two variables: temperature and moisture, at three levels 150-170-200 °C and 120-160-200 g/kg wb, respectively. Effects were evaluated by the ANOVA method. As responses, solubility and water absorption, amylographic and dynamic rheological properties, crystallinity, granular integrity and resistant starch content were evaluated. Flours obtained from samples heated by fluidized bed gave aqueous dispersions with high consistencies when cooked, and they had low solubility in water and preserved part of the starch crystalline structure. Flours obtained from extrusion-heated samples gave very high solubility in water but had lower consistency of the aqueous dispersions when cooked, and they showed a complete loss of the crystalline and granular structure.By applying each of the two heating processes, it was possible to modify, according to selected targets, the amaranth starch-rich fraction, what would allow to obtain pre-cooked amaranth flours with a wide range of hydration and rheological properties.     

Degree of appropriateness and frequency of consumption of mayonnaise, ketchup, mustard and similar sauces in Argentina

The objectives of this study were to measure the appropriateness and frequency of consumption of five moist seasoning sauces (SS) for 16 different uses, and to analyze the relationship between these two measures. SS were golf sauce, ketchup, mayonnaise, mustard and “mostanesa” (mustard + mayonnaise). A total of 240 subjects, distributed in two cities, of three age groups and two genders performed the measurements. Mayonnaise was the SS considered most appropriate and consumed most frequently. For the average subject appropriateness was a valid predictor of frequency of consumption, but this prediction was not uniform over different seasoning sauces. When each individual subject was considered the correlation between frequency of consumption and appropriateness was not good: some consumed what they thought appropriate, but others consumed SS with low appropriateness, and others did not consume what they thought appropriate. Subjects were clustered according to what they consider appropriate and consume and not according to where they live, their age or gender.     

Clothing the Family of an MP in the 1690s: An Analysis of the Day Book of Edward Clarke of Chipley,Somerset

Abstract

An analysis of the Day Book 1692–1703 of Edward Clarke of Chipley, Somerset (1650–1710), MP for Taunton, reveals evidence of his expenses on clothes for his children. He also describes where the family shopped and who did the shopping, what materials were used and what they cost, who made the clothes and whether clothes were refurbished. The article uses the correspondence of Edward and his wife Mary to show how fashion and clothes were an enduring interest and subject of discussion in both town and country.     

Technical note: validation of methodology for characterization of feeding behavior in dairy calves

Time sampling techniques are useful in collecting feeding behavior data because they minimize the time required for observation. Instantaneous recording is often used in the collection of feeding behavior data for dairy calves; however, the recording intervals used vary widely and it is unclear what minimum interval is necessary to yield accurate data. The objective of this study was to validate data obtained using instantaneous recording of feeding behavior of dairy calves across a range of time intervals with data obtained from continuous recording. Ten Holstein bull calves were observed continuously using time-lapse video for 3 d during the milk-feeding period while they were fed milk ad libitum and for 3 d post-milk-weaning while they consumed solid feed. Feeding behavior data obtained from continuous recording were compared with data obtained from instantaneous recording at intervals ranging from 15 s to 10 min. As expected, the strength of linear association between behavior measures obtained from continuous recording and instantaneous recording decreased with increasing recording interval. The relationship varied between feeding behavior measures; feeding time was represented well (R² >0.76) by instantaneous recording at up to 5-min intervals, but a strong linear association of meal frequency and meal time (R² >0.8) required intervals no greater than 1 min and 30 s, respectively. The relationship between feeding behavior measures obtained from continuous recording and recording at different intervals was similar in both periods; however, sensitivity of time sampling data across recording intervals was greater during the milk-feeding period. Sensitivity was low in both periods (<0.7 with scanning intervals as short as 1 min), indicating that instantaneous recording may not represent within-meal feeding behavior well. Instantaneous recording can provide accurate calf feeding behavior data if the recording interval is sufficiently short.     

Evaluation of plasma,high‐pressure and ultrasound processing on the stability of fructooligosaccharides

Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) are among the main carbohydrates with prebiotic activity, and they are the most applied functional carbohydrate ingredient in the food industry. FOS are known to hydrolyse when subjected to thermal processing, thus partially losing its functional properties. In this study, we evaluate whether three nonthermal technologies are suitable for processing FOS regarding its stability after processing. FOS were subjected to ultrasound, high‐pressure processing (HPP) and atmospheric cold plasma (ACP). The FOS solution, 70 g L^?1, was set at a concentration recommended for human intake. The treatments were carried out at operating conditions usually used for microbial inactivation in foods (HPP at 450 MPa for 5 min; US at 600–1200 W L^?1 for 5 min; ACP at 70 kV for 15–60 s). NMR and HPLC analysis of the FOS components showed that ACP, ultrasound and HPP have not induced any significant change on FOS concentration (<2.0%) nor on the degree of polymerisation of the FOS (<3.3%). Contrarily to what is reported for thermal treatments, these nonthermal technologies were considered suitable for FOS processing.     

Comparison between free radical scavenging capacity and oxidative stability of nut oils

Several works have measured free radical scavenging capacity of nut oils, since they may become a significant source of dietary fat. However, they have not considered kinetic parameters, what was the first aim of this work. Also, it was studied the possible relation between values of free radical scavenging capacity DPPH and oxidative stability (Rancimat method) in different nut (hazelnut, peanut, pistachio, walnut and almond) oils. The ranking of antioxidant capacity of nut oils, by both assays, was: pistachio > hazelnut > walnut > almond > peanut. A significant correlation was found between DPPH and Rancimat methods assays. Tocopherols appear to be the responsible compounds of this antioxidant capacity being neglictible the contribution of polyphenols. An interference effect of phospholipids, present in methanolic fraction of nut oils, was observed in the determination of polyphenols in nut oils by Folin and ortho-diphenols assays.     

Consumer perceptions of, and preferences for, beverage containers

Product packaging has become a focal point in environmentalists' objections against marketing practice. Successful packaging policy critically depends upon knowledge of consumer behaviour with respect to product packaging and packaged products. The present paper addresses three relevant issues in the context of beverage containers: (1) to what extent do consumers recognize environmental aspects in their perception of product packagings; (2) to what extent do they consider environmental aspects in their preference formation; and (3) to what extent do they prefer environmental aspects consistently across different beverages. The results indicate that environmental impact of product packagings is a salient aspect of product perception, but that in preference formation consumers balance environmental aspects against personal benefits, such as convenience. Consumers differ in the importance they attach to environmental aspects, and the attached importance is highly product-specific.     

Who is at risk and what do they know? Segmenting a population on their food safety knowledge

Although the public is increasingly concerned about food-related risks, the rise in food poisoning cases suggests that people still make decisions on food consumption, food storage and food preparation that are less than ideal from a health and safety perspective (O’Riordan, N., Cowan, C., & McCarthy, M. (2002). Safety of Irish beef—concerns, awareness and knowledge of Irish consumers. Journal of Food Safety, 22(1), 1–16; Shaw, A. (2003). Public understanding of food risks: expert and lay views. FoodInfo Online, 2–3. Science Central from IFIS publishing. Available from <http://www.foodsciencecentral.com/library.html#ifis/11831>; FSAI (2004). Report on zoonoses in Ireland 2000 and 2001. The Food Safety Authority of Ireland. Available from <http://www.fsai.ie/publications/reports/Zoonoses_report.pdf>). Consumer knowledge has been cited by many studies as a factor that influences risk assessment and thus behaviour (Frewer, L. J., Shepherd, R., & Sparks, P. (1994). The interrelationship between perceived knowledge, control and risk associated with a range of food-related hazards targeted at the individual, other people and society. Journal of Food Safety, 14, 19–40; Her Majesty’s Stationery Office (1995). A guide to risk assessment and risk management for environmental protection, Department of the Environment, HMSO, 77–78; Fife-Schaw, C., & Rowe, G. (1996). Public perceptions of everyday food hazards: a psychometric study. Risk Analysis, 16(4), 487–500). In this paper we report on a quantitative study (n = 1025) that examines knowledge levels about food safety practices, food safety and food science amongst the population on the island of Ireland and identifies food knowledge segments within this population. The findings suggest that the majority of the population of Ireland know what they should be doing in their kitchen from a food safety perspective but they are not, in many cases, following the best practice guidelines and regard less than ideal food handling practices as safe. Furthermore, while food safety knowledge levels were high, the level of food science knowledge was rather low. The segmentation of the sample based on knowledge levels yielded some interesting findings. Four segments were clearly identified by Hierarchical Cluster Analysis and labelled “At-Risk”, “Food Safety Conscious” (FSC), “Food Science Knowledge Deficient” (FSKD) and “Informed”. The At-Risk segment (13%) were of particular interest as members of this segment clearly have less than ideal food safety practices and when compared with the other segments also have significantly lower knowledge about what they should be doing, about food safety and about food science issues. This segment may require targeted promotions from food safety communicators but, given their demographic profile, effective communication could prove difficult.     

Effect of pre-incubation conditions on growth and survival of Staphylococcus aureus in sliced cooked chicken breast

In this work, the effect of pre-incubation conditions (temperature: 10, 15, 37 °C; pH 5.5, 6.5 and water activity, a_w: 0.997, 0.960) was evaluated on the subsequent growth, survival and enterotoxin production (SE) of Staphylococcus aureus in cooked chicken breast incubated at 10 and 20 °C. Results showed the ability of S. aureus to survive at 10 °C when pre-incubated at low a_w (0.960) what could constitute a food risk if osmotic stressed cells of S. aureus which form biofilms survive on dried surfaces, and they are transferred to cooked meat products by cross-contamination. Regarding growth at 20 °C, cells pre-incubated at pH 5.5 and a_w 0.960 had a longer lag phase and a slower maximum growth rate. On the contrary, it was highlighted that pre-incubation at optimal conditions (37 °C/pH 6.5/a_w 0.997) produced a better adaptation and a faster growth in meat products what would lead to a higher SE production. These findings can support the adoption of management strategies and preventive measures in food industries leading to avoid growth and SE production in meat products.     

A fascinating but risky case of reverse inference: From measures to emotions! Sylvain Delplanque & David Sander

Based on Klaus Scherer’s Component Process Definition of Emotion and Feeling, Delplanque & Sander's opinion piece describes the various components of the Scherer model and why any inferences drawn regarding the quality and intensity of an instance of emotion that are based solely on a single component of the model (i.e. by making a reverse inference) are likely to be fallacious. This commentary reviews some of the opinions expressed by Delplanque & Sander and considers the implications of what they describe as the ‘reverse inference fallacy’, in the context of academic and commercial emotion measurement. Beyond this, two important conclusions may be drawn: Emotion is more than the subjectively experienced feeling associated with the instance of emotion. There’s no single objective or subjective measure that captures an instance of emotion holistically and in its entirety.     

Producer assessment of dairy extension programming in Kentucky

To assess the dairy production issues extension programming should be addressing, a survey was distributed to all licensed milk producers in Kentucky (n = 1,074). A total of 236 surveys were returned; 7 were omitted due to incompletion, leaving 229 for subsequent analyses (21% response rate). Mean herd size was 83.0 ± 101.8 cows with a projected increase to 102.1 ± 114.4 cows by 2013. Mean producer age was 50.9 ± 12.9 with a range of 22 to 82. Mean milk production (kg/cow per day) was 23.9 ± 5.4 with a range of 6.8 to 38.6 kg. Mean somatic cell counts (SCC) were 304,824 ± 123,580 with a range of 75,000 to 750,000 cells/mL. When asked about meeting attendance frequency, 25% of producers indicated they attended meetings annually, whereas 29% attended twice yearly, 13% quarterly, 3% monthly, 2% at least twice monthly, and 28% indicated they never attended meetings. Surveyed producers were asked to assess what level of importance should be placed on a predetermined list of management topics. Mean response to each topic was calculated after assigning the following numeric values to producer response categories: not important: 1, important: 3, and very important: 5. Producers indicated mastitis and milk quality was the most important management topic with a response of 4.35 ± 1.05, followed by animal well-being (4.05 ± 1.14), disease prevention and vaccinations (4.01 ± 1.06), cow comfort (3.97 ± 1.09), disease treatment (3.95 ± 1.10), and lameness and hoof health (3.95 ± 1.16). Producers were asked to identify their preferred information delivery method. The most effective delivery methods were printed farm magazines (81.0%), agricultural newspapers (77.4%), printed newsletters from county agricultural agents (75.7%), printed newsletters from university extension (65.0%), and local or regional meetings (55.8%). The least effective delivery methods were university website (11.9%), indirect access through allied industry consultants (11.5%), webinars (2.7%), podcasts (0.4%), and blogs (0.4%). These results provide invaluable insight for future dairy-related Cooperative Extension Service programming efforts.     

Adolescents’ food packaging perceptions. Does gender matter when weight control and health motivations are considered?

This paper investigates, first, to what extent adolescents highly involved in food are more worried about weight control and health than less involved adolescents. Second, it studies the impact of both food choice motivations on food packaging relevance, considering both, visual and informative packaging cues. Finally, these relationships are re-tested in two different frameworks: men and to this end, 589 adolescent consumers between 14 and 17 years were questioned. The interviews were done personally by an external company at the door of 30 different schools. Our results have confirmed the relevance of packaging informative cues over visual cues for adolescents highly worried about weight control and health. Women are significantly more involved in food than men, being also more worried about weight control and health than them. Even more, women pay significantly more attention than men on informative cues when they choose a food to control weight.     

Encouraging sustainable insect-based diets: The role of disgust,social influence,and moral concern in insect consumption

Disgust, social influence, and moral concern seem to play a pivotal role in insect consumption. Research examining these factors, particularly in the UK, is currently lacking. As a result, two studies were conducted to examine the perceived barriers and benefits of insect consumption, and how disgust can be counteracted. First, a cross-sectional study (N = 600) showed that disgust and moral concerns were unique predictors of individual’s willingness to consume insect products. Second, we conducted an experiment (N = 519) to examine whether knowledge that someone else consumes an insect-based product impacts one’s own willingness to consume insects. In this study we replicated Hartmann, Ruby, Schmidt, and Siegrist (2018) methodology of giving information about an insect consumer but added details about the individuals’ occupation and what type of product they consumed, examining how these factors impacted individual’s willingness to consume insect-based products. We found that this information did not impact willingness to consume; however, it did influence feelings of disgust and perceived acceptability. This study also replicated the first study by demonstrating that disgust and moral concern are barriers to insect consumption. We hope the current findings trigger future research to examine how disgust can be counteracted, and to better understand the role of moral concern in insect consumption.     

Training for more accurate visual fat estimation in meat

Much animal fat in the diet is contained in meat. As fat intake is considered too high in western societies, a more fat-conscious attitude may be desirable. One of the parties involved is the butcher, who sells fresh meat directly to the consumer. In a pre-post experimental design, with an interpolated training phase, the possibility to improve the ability of student butchers to visually estimate fat content of meat, was investigated. A limited number of training sessions, in which immediate feed-back was given of the actual fat percentage after each estimation, led to a large improvement in fat estimation accuracy. A delayed post-test indicated that most of the training effect was preserved after six weeks. Similarities between the observed learning process and informational feed-back learning with numerosity stimuli were discussed. On the basis of these results it is recommended that courses for trainee butchers include a short course on fat estimation in their curriculum. If butchers sell what they think they sell, consumers are more likely to get what they think they get. Increased ‘fat awareness’ may indirectly contribute to healthier eating habits.