润滑油膜厚度的光学相干层析成像测量

为了对滑动轴承的润滑油膜厚度进行精确测量,搭建了光纤结构的谱域光学相干层析成像(OCT)检测系统。该检测系统通过谱域OCT对油膜进行高分辨率成像,根据一维深度图像和二维层析图像中油膜和轴承表面的相对位置得到油膜厚度。分析了SD-OCT的检测原理,并对油膜厚度进行了测量,通过干涉光谱解耦法减小噪声对测量结果的影响。实验结果表明,该系统的测量误差小于2μm,具有良好的重复性和可靠性。该测量方法能够对油膜进行快速准确测量,有望应用于机械设备轴承运行状况的在线监测。     

Film-forming Characteristics of Grease in Point Contact under Swaying Motions

The technique of relative optical interference intensity (ROII) and simple numerical calculations were used to investigate the lubricating behavior of grease lubricant films in the rolling direction under swaying motions (acceleration/deceleration). Experimental results indicate that at a same entrainment velocity of the inlet, the central film thickness under deceleration is larger than that under acceleration. The minimum central film thickness in one swaying cycle does not occur at the moment of zero entrainment, but at the initial period of acceleration. At the moment of zero entrainment, the central film is thicker than its peripheries, and the value of the central film thickness increases with increases in the changing rate of the entrainment velocity. It is thought that the transient behaviors of the grease lubricant film deviate from those in steady state conditions. The profiles of the transient film thickness and the approximate thicknesses of elastohydrodynamic contact in the rolling direction calculated by using a simple numerical method are supported by the experimental results. The numerical method can also be used to explain the behavior of the grease lubricating film under non-steady state conditions. An erratum to this article can be found at     

Substrate surface energy effects on a liquid lubricant film at nanometre scalesubstrate surface energy effects on a liquid lubricant film at nanometre scale

In this paper is discussed the effect of the physical characteristics of substrate surfaces on the lubrication properties of thin films at nanometre scale. Different coatings with different surface energies have been formed on the surface of a steel ball by means of plasma assisted sedimentation (PAS). The ball was put in a pure rolling system in point contact, where the lubricant film is measured by relative optical interference intensity (ROII). Experimental results show that the film thickness is closely related to the substrate surface energy when the film is in the nanometre scale, and that the combined surface roughness in the contact region is closely related to the liquid lubricant film thickness and the contact pressure. The thinner the film and the higher the contact pressure, the smaller will be the combined surface roughness. Lastly, the relationship between critical film thickness and its influencing factors is discussed.     

The Tribological Properties of Oils Added with Diamond Nano-Particles

A technique of relative optical interference intensity (ROII) and a high-precision force measuring system were used to measure film thickness and friction force of the oils added with ultra-fine diamond powder (UDP) in the nano-scale. The results show that the oil containing UDP nano-particles forms a thicker film than does the pure base oil. In the rubbing process, the hard spherical UDP nano-particles plow the two surfaces and produce many smooth micro-grooves. The friction force decreases with sliding distance. The possible mechanisms for such reduction and physical model of diamond nano-particles as additives in oils are discussed.     

Elastohydrodynamic Film Thickness Mapping by Computer Differential Colorimetry

This paper describes a new experimental technique for the study of elastohydrodynamic (EHD) lubricant films. This technique, which is based on the computer processing of EHD chromatic interferograms, uses a combination of image analysis and differential colorimetry for film thickness evaluation. This approach overcomes some major limitations of conventional optical interferometry and allows the precise mapping of lubricant film thickness distribution in EHD contacts, including transient and quasistatic phenomena. The technique has been used for the evaluation of chromatic interference patterns obtained from a conventional optical test rig for rolling point contacts. Three-dimensional representations of lubricant film thickness and shape with high accuracy and spatial resolution have been obtained. The technique's accuracy has been checked and a comparison with conventional monochromatic interferometry has been done for validation. The technique's resolution has been confirmed through the observation of local film thickening just before the EHD exit constriction for both pure rolling and sliding conditions.     

The Failure of Fluid Film at Nano-Scale

The determination of hydrodynamic film failure has become one of the key aspects in the study of thin film lubrication (TFL) since the hydrodynamic effect of fluid film at nano-scale can be observed with recently developed experimental techniques. In the present paper, the relative optical interference intensity (ROII) technique with a resolution of 0.5 run in the vertical direction has been used to measure the film thickness. Experimental results show that the hydrodynamic effect can be clearly observed even at very low speed if the contact pressure is sufficiently low or if the viscosity of lubricant is comparatively high. When the pressure increases to a certain degree, the film will suddenly drop to the dimension of several layers of molecules and this is where the failure of the fluid film has taken place. For different viscosity of lubricants, the fluid film failure occurs at different rolling speeds and pressures. In addition, when the normal load becomes higher, a higher speed or larger viscosity is required to form the fluid film in the contact region. Finally, the effects of pressure, viscosity, and velocity on the occurrence of fluid film failure have been examined and a relationship involving the three parameters is proposed.     

Monochromatic image analysis of elastohydrodynamic lubrication film thickness by fringe intensity computation

Point contact film thickness in elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) is analyzed by image processing method for the images from an optical interferometer with monochromatic incident light. Interference between the reflected lights both on half mirrorCr coating of glass disk and on super finished ball makes circular fringes depending on the contact conditions such as sliding velocity, applied load, viscosity-pressure characteristics and viscosity of lubricant under ambient pressure. In this situation the film thickness is regarded as the difference of optical paths between those reflected lights, which make dark and bright fringes with monochromatic incident light. The film thickness is computed by numbering the dark and bright fringe orders and the intensity (gray scale image) in each fringe regime is mapped to the corresponding film thickness. In this work, we developed a measuring technique for EHL film thickness by dividing the image patterns into two typical types under the condition of monochromatic incident light. During the image processing, the captured image is converted into digitally formatted data over the contact area without any loss of the image information of interferogram and it is also interpreted with consistency regardless of the observer’ s experimental experience. It is expected that the developed image processing method will provide a valuable basis to develop the image processing technique for color fringes, which is generally used for the measurement of relatively thin films in higher resolution.     

单色光干涉面接触润滑膜厚在线测量

提出了滑块-玻璃盘形成的面接触润滑油膜厚度光干涉在线测量方法。以单色激光为光源,根据油膜厚度变化引起平行干涉条纹平移的物理特征,基于光流和动态时间规整技术构造复合算法,测量干涉图像相邻帧空间域上一维光强曲线的位移,从而得到相邻帧之间的油膜厚度差。从零速度开始记录每一帧干涉图像对应的膜厚变化,实时计算出当前帧对应的膜厚,实现了膜厚的在线测量。当前算法的测量结果与离线膜厚测量结果进行了对比,验证了该系统的测量准确性。进行了阶跃载荷、匀加速及匀减速工况下的膜厚测量,揭示了膜厚变化规律。     

Multi-range sensors for the measurement of liquid film thickness distributions based on electrical conductance

The paper presents an approach toward an enhancement of the measuring range of high-speed sensors for the measurement of liquid film thickness distributions based on electrical conductance. This type of sensors consists of electrodes mounted flush to the wall. The sampling of the current generated between a pair of neighboring electrode is used as a measure of the film thickness. Such sensors have a limited measuring range, which is proportional to the lateral distance between the electrodes. The range is therefore coupled to the spatial resolution. The proposed new design allows an extension of the film thickness range by combining electrode matrices of different resolution in one and the same sensor. In this way, a high spatial resolution is reached with a small thickness range, whereas a film thickness that exceeds the range of the high resolution measurement can still be acquired even though on the costs of a lower spatial resolution. A simultaneous signal acquisition with a sampling frequency of 3.2 kHz combines three measuring ranges for the characterization of a two-dimensional film thickness distribution: (1) thickness range 0–600 µm, lateral resolution 2×2 mm², (2) thickness range 400–1300 µm, lateral resolution 4×4 mm², and (3) thickness range 1000–3500 µm, lateral resolution 12×12 mm². The functionality of this concept sensor is demonstrated by tests in a horizontal wavy stratified air–water flow at ambient conditions. Using flexible printed circuit board technology to manufacture the sensor makes it possible to place the sensor at the inner surface of a circular pipe.     

Interferometry Measurement of Lubricating Films in Slider-On-Disc Contacts

Interferometry proves to be an efficient way to measure thin lubricant film thickness. However, there are very few reports on the film thickness measurement of conformal lubricated contacts using optical interferometry due to experimental difficulties. In this article, a custom-built test apparatus is introduced, in which a lubricated conformal contact is made between a stationary fixed-incline slider and a moving transparent disc. With a flexible holder, the slider can be positioned in such a way that a specified inclination with respect to the flat disc plane can be obtained. When the disc rotates and the slider is loaded against it, lubricating films are generated. The minimum film thickness h _m at the exit can be determined by interference intensity changes. Measurement error correction in the film thickness was discussed. Case experiments were carried out using the new test apparatus. The credibility of the measurement system is validated by good correlation between the experiments and the theoretical results. The applicability is demonstrated by the film thickness measurement under different inclinations, loads, velocities, lubricants and slider materials. Amongst those case experiments, it is highlighted that the influences of solid/liquid interface properties on the lubrication behaviours can be clearly identified in terms of film thickness.     

基于单色光干涉的光刻胶膜厚测量方法

针对传统的通过转速与光刻胶膜厚的关系来大致判断膜厚范围的问题,研究了基于单色光干涉的光刻胶膜厚测量方法。基于光刻胶的基本特性,将油膜的膜厚测量方法应用在光刻胶上。基于薄膜干涉原理进行系统的光路设计以及光刻胶膜厚测量平台的设计。进行了干涉条纹自动计数算法的研究以及基于单色光干涉的相对光强原理的研究。最后搭建硬件系统和软件系统,对干涉条纹自动计数算法与单色光干涉的膜厚测量方法进行实验验证与分析,实现了光刻胶膜厚的快速精确测量。     

基于FRAP的微间隙润滑油膜流速测量方法

薄油膜润滑广泛存在于各类精密机械与微机电系统中。微纳米间隙内的润滑油流动是影响薄膜润滑承载力的重要因素,但目前薄润滑油膜的流速测量仍然缺少有效手段。本文基于荧光漂白恢复显微技术和漂白区域形状演化过程的成像分析,建立了油膜流速测量系统,可以对微米间隙润滑油膜的速度分布进行原位测量。利用建立的系统获得了厚度为8μm时聚丁烯PB450润滑油膜的库埃特流速分布。重建的荧光漂白强度分布曲线和实验测量结果的皮尔森相关系数大于0.95,且流速分布符合已有润滑理论,证明了测量结果的可靠性。     

Numerical evaluation of pressure from experimentally measured film thickness in EHL point contact

This paper is concerned with elastohydrodynamic lubrication, especially the determination of lubricant film thickness and contact pressure within a point contact of friction surfaces of machine parts. A new solution technique for numerical determination of contact pressure is introduced. The direct measurement of contact pressure is very difficult. Hence, input data of lubricant film thickness obtained from the experiment based on colorimetric interferometry are used for the calculation of pressure using the inverse elasticity theory. The algorithm is enhanced by convolution in order to increase calculation speed. The approach described in this contribution gives reliable results on smooth contact and in the future, it will be extended to enable the study of contact of friction surfaces with asperities. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Simultaneous interferometric measurement of the absolute thickness and surface shape of a transparent plate using wavelength tuning Fourier analysis and phase shifting

The absolute optical thickness and surface shape of optical devices are considered as the fundamental characteristics when designing optical equipment. The thickness and surface shape should be measured simultaneously to reduce cost. In this research, the absolute optical thickness and surface shape of a 6–mm-thick fused silica transparent plate of diameter 100 mm was measured simultaneously by a three-surface Fizeau interferometer. A measurement method combining the wavelength tuning Fourier and phase shifting technique was proposed. The absolute optical thickness that corresponds to the group refractive index was determined by wavelength tuning Fourier analysis. At the beginning and end of the wavelength tuning, the fractional phases of the interference fringes were measured by the phase shifting technique and optical thickness deviations with respect to the ordinary refractive index and surface shape were determined. These two kinds of optical thicknesses were synthesized using the Sellmeier equation for the refractive index of fused silica glass, and the least square fitting method was used to determine the final absolute optical thickness distribution. The experimental results indicate that the all the measurement uncertainties for the absolute optical thickness and surface shape were approximately 3 nm and 35 nm, respectively.     

The investigation of contact ratio in mixed lubrication

In order to describe the mixed lubrication in nano-scale which is constituted from dry friction, boundary lubrication, and thin film lubrication, a contact ratio between surfaces of a glass disk and a steel ball in a pure rolling process has been measured by the technique of Relative Optical Interference Intensity (ROII) with a resolution of 0.5 nm in the vertical direction and 1 μm in the horizontal direction. The relationships between the contact ratio and its influence factors have been investigated. Experimental results indicate that the contact ratio in the static state is related to the combined surface roughness, maximum Hertz pressure, and the combined elastic module of tribo-pair in an exponential function. The decrease of rolling speed or lubricant viscosity, and the increase of the pressure will enhance the dynamic contact ratio which is the contact ratio measured in the rolling process. The addition of polar additives into basic oil will reduce the contact ratio. The contact ratio between rough surfaces is larger than that between smooth surfaces in the higher speed region. However, the former becomes smaller than the later after speed decreases below a critical value. A formula for calculating the dynamic contact ratio is given in the end of the paper.     

The Development of a Spacer Layer Imaging Method (SLIM) for Mapping Elastohydrodynamic Contacts

Optical interferometry has proved to be a valuable experimental tool in the study of elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHD). It is a technique that gives detailed information on the lubricant film distribution within the contact; however, the sensitivity is limited and it is only recently, with the development of the spacer layer optical technique, that the study of the thin film lubrication regime has been possible. The limitation of the spacer layer technique is that generally only one measurement is taken from the center of the contact. The next logical step in the development of this technique is, therefore, a system that combines the mapping capabilities of the original optical method with the thin film capabilities of the spacer layer approach.

This paper describes the development of a contact mapping technique that uses the spacer layer approach to visualize, and measure, thin lubricant films in concentrated contacts. The development of the technique is described and its application to both static and moving contacts reported. Thin EHD films (down to 10 nm) have been measured and mapped.     

Calculation of pressure distribution in EHD point contacts from experimentally determinated film thickness

In lubrication studies, film thickness is measured since 1963 using optical interferometry, but pressure distribution is also of great interest. Unfortunately, this parameter is very difficult to measure. This paper presents a new method for pressure evaluation based on an inverse elastic approach. This latter uses the film thickness field known precisely (±3 nm) by computerised treatment of interferograms. We present here the whole process, from the image to the pressure field. A complete error analysis is conducted: the pressure field is known within 5% and the spatial resolution is 3 grid steps, i.e. 6 μm.     

In Situ Raman Microspectrometry of Lubricated Tribologic Contacts. Part Two: Simultaneous Measurements of Pressure,Lubricant Film Thickness and Temperature Distributions in a Running EHD Contact

Raman micro-spectrometry is used to acquire point spectra in a running EHL contact. The quantitative method developed in part one of this study, measuring the lubricant film thickness, is complemented by a data treatment yielding quantitative values of the pressure and temperature in the lubricant. The comparison between experimentally measured pressure and film thickness distributions and numerical calculations shows an excellent quantitative agreement. The simultaneous quantitative measurement of pressure, film thickness and temperature distribution carried under pure rolling afforded a direct and quantitative correlation between the three parameters.     

The investigation of oil film thickness in heavily-loaded contact

An experimental study of the shape and thickness of the oil film during rolling in a thrust ball bearing has been carried out by the interference method.The experimental results showed good agreement with theory. Oil film thickness was affected mainly by the rolling velocity, viscosity of oil and maximum Hertzian stress. The groove radius had no effect on the film thickness. With increase of rolling velocity the film thickness increases and then reduces sharply owing to temperature rise and the non-Newtonian properties of the lubricant. A qualitative similarity was derived from the experimentally observed dimensionless shapes of the film and of the dimensionless theoretical shapes of the oil film for the lubricant in the non-Newtonian state. The flat “squashed” contact area diminished and disappeared with rise in velocity, which agreed with theoretical predictions.Good agreement was found between the theoretical and the experimental values of the oil film thickness and the friction coefficients for a ball sliding on a plane. Values of relaxation time for oil agree with values observed by the vibration method.The interference method is proposed to estimate the relation of the relaxation time for lubricants to the pressure and temperature up to maximum Hertzian pressures of 14,000 kg/cm². Experimental studies by the interference method and the solution of the non-isothermal hydrodynamic contact problem for liquids both in the Newtonian and non-Newtonian state provide a method of calculation of the friction coefficient.     

金刚石纳米颗粒对薄膜润滑性能的影响

采用相对光强原理对超细金刚石粉添加剂的纳米摩擦学性能进行了研究。试验结果表明 :在薄膜润滑区 ,球型纳米金刚石颗粒的增粘作用 ,使混合油油膜增厚 ;微滚动效应则导致摩擦力减小。其摩擦过程是金刚石颗粒不断分散和团聚的过程 ,呈现时间效应