The structure of computer anxiety: a six-factor model

A six-factor model of computer anxiety was tested in two samples of university students. The dimensions involved were: computer literacy, self-efficacy, physical arousal caused by computers, affective feelings about them, beliefs about the beneficial effects of computers, and beliefs about their dehumanizing aspects. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that, compared to a number of alternative models proposed in the literature, the data fitted this six-factor model relatively well. In addition, it was demonstrated that computer literacy has a strong directional influence on both physical arousal and affects. Beliefs about computers, in turn, were shown to be dependent on affects and physical arousal. Self-efficacy mainly contributed to increased computer literacy. These findings suggest that training programs that enhance self-efficacy and computer literacy may in principle reduce computer anxiety.     

Gender issues in technology use: Perceived social support,computer self-efficacy and value beliefs,and computer use beyond school

In this study, we examined relations between outside school computer experiences, perceived social support for using computers, and self-efficacy and value beliefs about computer learning for 340 Greek elementary school boys and girls. Participants responded to a questionnaire about their access to computer use outside school (e.g. frequency of use and nature of activities), perceived parental and peer support, and computer self-efficacy and value beliefs. Although almost all students used computers outside school, there were significant gender differences in frequency and type of computer use. Also, boys reported more perceived support from their parents and peers to use computers and more positive computer self-efficacy and value beliefs than girls. Parental support and, to a lesser extent, peer support were the factors more strongly associated with boys’ and girls’ computer self-efficacy and value beliefs, while home computer access was not related to students’ motivation. Our findings highlight the role of socialization in the gender gap in computing and the need for research and educational interventions that focus on the social practices that communicate gendered expectations to young boys and girls.     

A computer attitude scale for computer science freshmen and its educational implications

Abstract The successful integration of computers in educational environments depends, to a great extent, on students' attitudes towards them. Widely used computer attitude scales (CASs) focus on the beliefs of typical computer users and do not reveal the more refined attitudes of groups that use computers extensively and develop unique relations with them. This study presents the development and validation of a CAS especially designed for computer science freshmen (CASF). The scale consists of five factors, namely, self-confidence in previous knowledge, hardware usage anxiety, computer engagement, fears of long-lasting negative consequences of computer use and evaluation of positive consequences of computers in personal and social life. Using an analytic computer experience construct, the scale's components were related to multiple aspects of students' computer experience. CASF responses can inform a variety of instructional decisions and classroom management strategies for the first phase of the students' studies.     

Do older adults underestimate their actual computer knowledge?

This work examined the hypothesis that elderly people are less confident than young people in their own computer knowledge. This was done by having 49 young (M = 22.6 years) and 42 older (M = 68.6 years) participants to assess their global self-efficacy beliefs and to make item-by-item prospective (feeling-of-knowing: FOK) and retrospective (confidence level: CL) judgments about their knowledge in the two domains of computers and general knowledge. The latter served as a control domain. Item difficulty was equated across age groups in each domain. In spite of this age equivalence in actual performance, differences were found in FOK and CL ratings for computers but not for general knowledge, with older people being less confident than young people in their own computer knowledge. The greater age difference in ratings observed in the computer domain, as compared with the general domain, was even greater for the FOK than for the CL judgments. Statistical control of age differences in global self-efficacy beliefs in the computer domain (poorer in the older participants, but not in the general domain), eliminated age differences in FOK and CL judgments in the same domain. These findings confirm earlier ones. They suggest that underconfidence in their relevant abilities is one possible source of the difficulties that the elderly may encounter in mastering new computer technologies.     

Computer anxiety and anger: the impact of computer use, computer experience, and self-efficacy beliefs

Past research has demonstrated that the level of computer experience users have is the most valuable predictor in whether or not they will suffer computer anxiety symptoms, but this was not the case in the present study. No research was found which examined the correlates of computer anger symptoms. In the current study, the relationship between the computer use (frequency and duration), computer experience, and self-efficacy beliefs of users were analyzed as predictors for computer anxiety and anger symptoms. Questionnaire data from a sample of 242 university students were analyzed. The results indicated that computer self-efficacy beliefs, not computer experience or use, had the largest significant relationship with both computer anxiety, and anger. It is suggested that self-efficacy beliefs be increased so that users may experience lower levels of anxiety and anger. These findings are contrary to the trend of training computer users in specific computer domains. As computer anxiety and anger are negative psychological “states”, an immediate method to deal with these negative emotions should be developed. One possibility that is explored is the application of computer-based therapy that can be used while a user is experiencing negative emotional symptoms.     

The influence of specific computer experiences on computer self-efficacy beliefs

Previous research has demonstrated that computer experience has a positive impact on computer self-efficacy. However, little or no research has investigated the unique influence of specific types of computer experiences or knowledge on computer self-efficacy beliefs. This study examines the influence of eight types of computer experiences on computer self-efficacy. The results indicate that experience with computer programming and graphics applications have strong and significant effects on computer self-efficacy beliefs, whereas experience with spreadsheet and database applications demonstrated weak effects. The results offer useful insights into designing training courses and educational programs to enhance computer self-efficacy beliefs.     

Exploring the link between teachers’ educational belief profiles and different types of computer use in the classroom

The purpose of the study reported in this article was to analyse the relationship between teachers’ educational beliefs and their typical approach to computer use in the classroom. In this context, the question arises whether particular profiles of teachers can be distinguished based on their beliefs about good education. A survey of 574 elementary school teachers was conducted that focused both on teachers’ traditional or constructivist beliefs about education and on different types of computer use: ‘computers as an information tool’, ‘computers as a learning tool’ and ‘basic computers skills’. Cluster analysis resulted in four distinct teacher profiles, reflecting relatively homogeneous scale scores, based on varying levels of traditional and constructivist beliefs teachers hold about education. Overall results indicate that teachers with relatively strong constructivist beliefs who also have strong traditional beliefs report a higher frequency of computer use. In addition, results point at a specific relationship between teachers’ belief profiles and how computers are used in the classroom. Implications for the role of educational beliefs in supporting teachers to integrate ICT in the classroom are discussed.     

Use of computer simulation in teaching physiology: Student laboratory

This presentation describes a pilot project that was intended to develop an efficient low cost. self-paced computer-based instructional system to supplement and reinforce the physiology core experiments for a variety of students ranging from graduate students to students in the allied health sciences. The method chosen blends modern educational technology and computers with standard laboratory equipment. An example of the system using an arterial pressure model is presented. The program has been implemented in FORTRAN on a PDP-12 computer running under OS/8. The exercise has been tested on student laboratory groups and has been well received by those who have used it.     

Effective development, documentation, and distribution of computer programs

A common objective of government-funded technology efforts is to develop computer programs for analysis of weapon systems components such as a shell in a missile. It is often stipulated that the programs be made available to all organizations serving government needs and, in some cases, to anyone. However, there is a big difference between a program that is ‘available’ and one that can actually be used in a relatively short period of time by an organization other than the originator's. That is, the transferability of computer programs is not necessarily high. The objective of this paper is to develop guidelines for making computer programs more readily transferable than is common at present. The guidelines naturally fall into three categories: (1) original development or writing of a program; (2) documentation of program usage and characteristics in the form of a user's manual; and (3) the mechanics of distributing a program to other organizations. If the guidelines are not observed, significant pitfalls that are tremendous ‘effort drains’ must be expected. Adherance to the guidelines, on the other hand, should enable government agencies and contractors, as well as many other organizations, to minimize the effort required to adopt and make effective use of almost any computer program.     

Validation of a recording system for computer pointing device activity

This study reports on the development of the pointing device activity monitoring software, Mlog, which is used to assess elements of computer use such as pointing device use time. The Mlog monitoring program was written with Virtual C++ and is 1.59 MB in size. It is applicable for computers equipped with computer processing units (CPUs) of 1 GHz or faster, and records pointing device activity at the millisecond level. The accuracy, precision, and reliability of the Mlog monitoring program were tested by comparing Mlog-recorded activity time intervals, for example, the time interval between pressing and releasing the pointing device key, against oscilloscope-recorded pointing device electric signals. For most tested time intervals, the Mlog monitoring program's margin of error for accuracy was within ±0.50%, and it boasted precision error rate of less than 1.00%. Correlation coefficients between the Mlog recordings and the references were all greater than 0.99905, with the highest values observed for dragging actions. For most tested time intervals, the results of the reliability test showed that their intraclass correlation coefficients were higher than 0.95, with few less than 0.90 for those with relatively longer tested time intervals. Linear regression analyses indicated that the pointing device clicking action time intervals recorded by the Mlog monitoring program were very close to the reference values and not affected by CPU speed and memory capacity, computer system loadings of software programs in operation, or types of pointing device key action. In conclusion, the Mlog monitoring program was validated as an accurate tool for monitoring pointing device activity during computer work. Future study is warranted to examine the influences of idle time threshold for electronic activity monitoring, passive computer tasks, and job type on the performance of the program in field studies.

Relevance to industry

The Mlog monitoring program was validated as accurate in measuring pointing device activity during computer work, providing an indirect and supplemental exposure indices for those traditional ergonomic measurements for physical loading assessment.     

Evaluation of a computer program for teaching laboratory diagnosis of acid-base disorders.

A computer program was evaluated as a tool for increasing the diagnostic acumen of medical housestaff and students in identifying acid-base disorders. The participants were randomized into two groups; group A (N = 20) was encouraged to use the software, and group B (N = 19) was denied access. Pre- and post-tests were administered to delineate the groups' ability to identify correctly an acid-base disorder from laboratory data (electrolytes and arterial blood gas). During 6 weeks, group A used the computer for a mean of 2.83 h (range 1 to 6). The mean +/- SE number of correct answers out of 20 questions, prior to use of the computer program, were 5.7 +/- 0.8 (95% confidence interval 3.9 to 7.5) for group A and 5.2 +/- 0.6 (95% confidence interval 3.9 to 6.5) for group B. These results were not statistically different. Correct responses increased significantly in group A to 10.3 +/- 0.9 (P < 0.0001, 95% confidence interval 8.4 to 12.2) but did not increase significantly in group B. The data suggest that this software program was effective in increasing the diagnostic capabilities of medical housestaff and students for identifying acid-base disorders.     

It’s only a computer: Virtual humans increase willingness to disclose

Research has begun to explore the use of virtual humans (VHs) in clinical interviews (Bickmore, Gruber, & Picard, 2005). When designed as supportive and “safe” interaction partners, VHs may improve such screenings by increasing willingness to disclose information (Gratch, Wang, Gerten, & Fast, 2007). In health and mental health contexts, patients are often reluctant to respond honestly. In the context of health-screening interviews, we report a study in which participants interacted with a VH interviewer and were led to believe that the VH was controlled by either humans or automation. As predicted, compared to those who believed they were interacting with a human operator, participants who believed they were interacting with a computer reported lower fear of self-disclosure, lower impression management, displayed their sadness more intensely, and were rated by observers as more willing to disclose. These results suggest that automated VHs can help overcome a significant barrier to obtaining truthful patient information.     

Observed differences in upper extremity forces, muscle efforts, postures, velocities and accelerations across computer activities in a field study of office workers

This study, a part of the PRedicting Occupational biomechanics in OFfice workers (PROOF) study, investigated whether there are differences in field-measured forces, muscle efforts, postures, velocities and accelerations across computer activities. These parameters were measured continuously for 120 office workers performing their own work for two hours each. There were differences in nearly all forces, muscle efforts, postures, velocities and accelerations across keyboard, mouse and idle activities. Keyboard activities showed a 50% increase in the median right trapezius muscle effort when compared to mouse activities. Median shoulder rotation changed from 25 degrees internal rotation during keyboard use to 15 degrees external rotation during mouse use. Only keyboard use was associated with median ulnar deviations greater than 5 degrees. Idle activities led to the greatest variability observed in all muscle efforts and postures measured. In future studies, measurements of computer activities could be used to provide information on the physical exposures experienced during computer use. Practitioner Summary: Computer users may develop musculoskeletal disorders due to their force, muscle effort, posture and wrist velocity and acceleration exposures during computer use. We report that many physical exposures are different across computer activities. This information may be used to estimate physical exposures based on patterns of computer activities over time.     

Effects of computer use during coursework on computer aversion

To test the impact of computer experience on computer aversion, 1542 students, enrolled in 32 sections of an Introductory Psychology course utilizing a computerized tutorial program were surveyed. The 32 sections were also randomly assigned to three teaching formats that involved differing levels of computer tutorial usage. Measures of computer aversion, computer attitudes, and computer anxiety were administered three times during the course and analyzed to reveal differential change patterns stemming from courseware use which were based upon gender and preexisting computer anxiety levels. These observed changes are discussed in relation to students' reinforcement, efficacy, and outcome expectations from computer use.     

Extended cabfac and Qmodel computer programs for Q-mode factor analysis of compositional data

The computer program CABFAC for Q-mode factor analysis of geologic data has been extended for use with data having constant row-sums. Another program, QMODEL, reads an output file from CABFAC and can be used to develop a variety of Q-mode models. The models serve to reproduce estimates of the original data rather than of the data in normalized form.     

The construct of a high-level computer language for programmable assembly

In recent years, considerable effort has been devoted to developing and extending programming languages for manipulation of computer-controlled robotic arms for various tasks. The present trend is to develop high-level languages that simplify the programming task so that they can be used by a less well-trained person with ease and speed. In this article, the information required for assembly is examined and a construct of a new computer language is proposed. An example of a computer program using the proposed language for assembling a pencil sharpener is given. This program is compared with similar program written in another language currently being developed and extended.     

A situated cognition view about the effects of planning and authorship on computer program debugging

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the relationship between planning and debugging and the effect of program authorship on debugging strategies. Three groups of participants with different programming experiences were recruited. In the first experiment, the participants were asked to develop and debug their self-generated program whereas in the second experiment, they were asked to debug an otherwritten program where some logical errors were planted. Situated cognition approach, being an emergent cognitive paradigm, furnishes an alternative framework to understand the problems of interest. Deweyan notion of inquiry and Gibsonian theory of affordance are of particular relevance. The results show that planning is ineffective for debugging, irrespective of the programming expertise level and program authorship. Besides, situated debugging is demonstrated to be the preferred strategy which is not significantly related to the program authorship. A model of planning for program debugging and a theory of two-faceted transparency are postulated for explicating the observations.     

Self-help computer conferencing

Computer conferencing has become popular as an alternative to face-to-face conferencing in many kinds of organizations. Since users can participate at any time, from any terminal, computer conferencing makes communication very convenient, though many find the medium to be impersonal. This paper discusses the potential of computer conferencing to increase the number of people who participate in self-help groups, such as groups to help people lose weight or stop smoking. The kinds of interactions that make for successful self-help groups might be encouraged by a computer-conferencing format, even though there is no direct, face-to-face contact. The results of a trial smoking-cessation program which employed computer conferencing suggest that computer conferencing could play a useful role in health promotion.     

BB_RADABA: a computer program as a tool for breeding and management of laboratory animals.

The use of well characterized laboratory animals in biomedical research is of importance for quality securing and reproducibility of animal experiments. Therefore, breeders should not only have in mind the reproduction of their animal stocks, but they should also be interested to achieve an optimal resemblance of the animals in the main traits characterizing them as a model of human diseases. Specific software applications which helps the breeders in monitoring the main breeding parameters, selecting suitable breeding pairs and data processing are practically not available. This prompted us to develop a computer program for management of breeding and experimental data, which we called BB_RADABA. In this report we want to give a short survey on this computer program.     

A general purpose computer program for multi-dimensional one- and two-phase flow

The following argument is presented:The actual achievements of computational fluid mechanics, great though they are, scarcely measure up to the power of the numerical schemes and of the computers that are now available. In practice, the time and energies of would-be users of computational schemes are often spent on the devising and maintaining of the computer programs which embody these schemes; and these programs, being vulnerable to damage arising from well-meant alterations, seldom perform well for long periods, once they have left their originators' hands.Progress in the application of numerical models, and in the refinement of the physical models, and in the refinement of the physical hypotheses which they embody, could be greatly accelerated if practitioners were enabled to employ a reliable and economical standard computer program, incorporating the well-established balance laws of fluid mechanics, heat transfer and mass transfer, and structured so that particular material properties, geometries and boundary conditions could be easily incorporated. Such a program, if continuously and centrally maintained, could free the computer-modelling fraternity of the chores of code construction and maintenance; it would thus permit them to apply their innovative talents to the development and application of improved physical hypotheses.The PHOENICS code system has been developed in order to meet this need. Its nature, current capabilities and development possibilities will be described in the paper.