Price and cigarette consumption in Europe

Objective

To analyse the variation in demand for tobacco according to price of cigarettes across the European region.

Design

Cross‐sectional study.

Setting

All the 52 countries of the European region.

Participants

For each European country, data were collected on annual per adult cigarette consumption (2000), smoking prevalence (most recent), retail price of a pack of local and foreign brand cigarettes (around 2000), the gross domestic product adjusted by purchasing power parities, and the adult population (2000).

Main outcome measure

Price elasticity of demand for cigarettes (that is, the change in cigarette consumption according to a change in tobacco price) across all the European countries, estimated by double‐log multiple linear regression.

Results

Controlling for male to female prevalence ratio, price elasticities for consumption were −0.46 (95% confidence interval (CI) −0.74 to −0.17) and −0.74 (95% CI −1.13 to −0.35) for local and foreign brand, respectively. The inverse relation between cigarette price and consumption was stronger in countries not in the European Union (price elasticity for foreign brand cigarettes of −0.8) as compared to European Union countries (price elasticity of −0.4).

Conclusions

The result that, on average, in Europe smoking consumption decreases 5–7% for a 10% increase in the real price of cigarettes strongly supports an inverse association between price and cigarette smoking.     

Health consequences of reduced daily cigarette consumption

Objective

To determine the risk of dying from specified smoking‐related diseases and from any cause in heavy smoking men and women (⩾15 cigarettes/day), who reduced their daily cigarette consumption by >50%.

Design

A prospective cohort study.

Setting

Three counties in Norway.

Participants

24 959 men and 26 251 women, aged 20–49 years, screened for risk factors of cardiovascular disease in the mid‐1970s, screened again after 3–13 years, and followed up throughout 2003.

Outcomes

Absolute mortality and relative risks adjusted for confounding variables, of dying from all causes, cardiovascular disease, ischaemic heart disease, all smoking‐related cancer and lung cancer.

Results

With sustained heavy smokers as reference, the smokers of both sexes who reduced their daily consumption (reducers) had the following adjusted relative risks (95% confidence interval (CI)): of dying from any cause, 1.02 (0.84 to 1.22); cardiovascular disease, 1.02 (0.75 to 1.39); ischaemic heart disease, 0.96 (0.65 to 1.41); smoking‐related cancer, 0.86 (0.57 to 1.29); and lung cancer, 0.66 (0.36 to 1.21). The difference in cigarette consumption between two examinations was not a significant predictor of death from any of the causes. A follow‐up from a third screening of the subgroup who were reducers at both second and third examinations (sustained reducers) did not have a lower risk than those who were heavy smokers at all three examinations.

Conclusions

Long‐term follow‐up provides no evidence that heavy smokers who cut down their daily cigarette consumption by >50% reduce their risk of premature death significantly. In health education and patient counselling, it may give people false expectations to advise that reduction in consumption is associated with reduction in harm.Does reduced daily cigarette consumption lead to lower mortality from the serious health consequences of cigarette smoking? In other words, does a reduction in consumption bring about reduction in harm?Numerous population studies have given ample evidence that quitting smoking entirely results in a marked reduction in the ill effects of smoking. Up to now, however, only one large prospective study has explored the long‐term effects of unassisted reduced smoking. Godtfredsen et al^1,2,3,4 have pioneered in this field by following up a population of nearly 20 000 men and women living in Copenhagen, Denmark (the Copenhagen Centre for Prospective Population Studies). After mean observation periods ranging from 13.8 to 18 years, they published their results in a series of articles.The aim of this paper is to determine the risk in heavy smokers who reduced their cigarette consumption by at least 50%, named “reducers”, compared with those who continued as heavy smokers. We report on a Norwegian population of 51 210 men and women, aged 20–49 years, who were examined in the mid‐1970s for cardiovascular disease risk factors and were examined again during the next 3–13 years at least once. These people were followed up throughout 2003 for deaths from serious smoking‐related diseases and from all causes. The mean observation period is 21.2 years, maximum 27 years. A subgroup attended three screenings. This gave us the possibility to compare those who were reducers at the two last screenings (sustained reducers) with those who were heavy smokers at all three screenings (sustained heavy smokers).     

Tobacco and cigarette butt consumption in humans and animals

Discarded cigarette butts may present health risks to human infants and animals because of indiscriminate eating behaviours. Nicotine found in cigarette butts may cause vomiting and neurological toxicity; leachates of cigarette butts in aquatic environments may cause exposure to additional toxic chemicals including heavy metals, ethyl phenol and pesticide residues. This report reviews published and grey literature regarding cigarette butt waste consumption by children, pets and wildlife. Although reports of human and animal exposures number in the tens of thousands, severe toxic outcomes due to butt consumption are rare. Nonetheless, the ubiquity of cigarette butt waste and its potential for adverse effects on human and animal health warrants additional research and policy interventions to reduce the stream of these pollutants in the environment.     

连锁经营对我国卷烟销售的影响分析及对策探讨

在对连锁经营发展现状、发展态势以及对我国卷烟销售影响分析的基础上,针对连锁经营的特点和卷烟专卖管理特征,提出确保我国卷烟销售网络正常运行的对策建议。      

卷烟逐口烟丝消耗量的测定

为准确测定卷烟抽吸时的逐口烟丝消耗量,基于力矩平衡原理设计了一种能实时监测卷烟抽吸过程中烟支质量损失的装置,结合抽吸比率实验获得了卷烟抽吸时的逐口烟丝消耗量,并进一步考察了滤嘴通风率对逐口烟丝消耗量的影响,探讨了燃烧锥端进气量与烟丝消耗量之间的关系。结果表明：1）设计装置能准确测定出烟支的质量变化,且精密度RSD<1%;2）由卷烟抽吸失重曲线可明显区分出烟支阴燃和吸燃过程,并根据卷烟吸燃前后质量差计算得到了卷烟抽吸逐口质量损失,其大小随抽吸口序的增加而增加;3）结合抽吸比率实验测得了卷烟抽吸逐口烟丝消耗量,实验所用1#、2#和3#卷烟稳定抽吸时其逐口烟丝消耗量在19.9～26.2 mg之间;4）相同口序下卷烟抽吸消耗的烟丝量随滤嘴通风率增大而减小;5）燃烧锥端进气量与烟丝消耗量呈线性关系,且每毫升燃烧锥端进气量消耗的烟丝量与烟丝燃烧性相关。     

烟叶碎片在卷烟降耗降焦工艺中的应用研究

研究了在混合烟丝中加入不同比例的烟叶碎片对混合烟丝填充值、烟支单重、卷烟焦油产生量以及感官质量的影响。结果表明，在混合烟丝中掺入适当比例的烟叶碎片，既可提高其填充值、降低烟支单重、减少卷烟焦油量的产生，且对感官质量无太大影响，又可充分利用烟叶原料，为卷烟降耗、降焦工艺提供了一种新的参考方法。     

卷烟吸燃耗氧量影响因素

为研究卷烟设计参数、抽吸参数和燃烧速率对卷烟燃吸耗氧量的影响,采用吸烟机和顺磁氧气分析联用系统建立了卷烟吸燃耗氧量的测试方法,考察了不同抽吸条件下和不同设计参数的卷烟吸燃耗氧量变化,并研究了吸燃耗氧量与燃烧速率和烟气常规成分之间的相互关系。结果表明：(1)卷烟吸燃耗氧量随抽吸容量、抽吸持续时间、膨胀烟丝含量、再造烟叶丝含量、卷烟纸定量、卷烟纸钾钠比、卷烟纸填料含量和烟支圆周的增加而升高,随烟支单支质量、膨胀梗丝含量和卷烟纸透气度的增加而降低,随烟丝宽度和卷烟纸助燃剂含量的增加呈先升后降变化趋势。(2)卷烟吸燃耗氧量与卷烟吸燃速率、烟丝静燃速率和卷烟静燃速率显著正相关,与烟碱、TPM、焦油及抽吸口数显著负相关,与水分和CO无显著相关性。     

Trends and affordability of cigarette prices: ample room for tax increases and related health gains

BACKGROUND: Increasing the price of tobacco products is arguably the most effective method of curbing the prevalence and consumption of tobacco products. Price increases would reduce the global burden of disease brought about by tobacco consumption. OBJECTIVES: To compare cigarette price data from more than 80 countries using varying methods, examine trends in prices and affordability during the 1990s, and explore various policy implications pertaining to tobacco prices. DESIGN: March 2001 cigarette price data from the Economist Intelligence Unit are used to compare cigarette prices across countries. To facilitate comparison and to assess affordability, prices are presented in US dollars, purchasing power parity (PPP) units using the Big Mac index as an indicator of PPP and in terms of minutes of labour required to purchase a pack of cigarettes. Annual real percentage changes in cigarette prices between 1990 and 2000 and annual changes in the minutes of labour required to buy cigarettes between 1991 and 2000 are also calculated to examine trends. RESULTS: Cigarette prices tend to be higher in wealthier countries and in countries that have strong tobacco control programmes. On the other hand, minutes of labour required to purchase cigarettes vary vastly between countries. Trends between 1990 and 2000 in real prices and minutes of labour indicate, with some exceptions, that cigarettes have become more expensive in most developed countries but more affordable in many developing countries. However, in the UK, despite recent increases in price, cigarettes are still more affordable than they were in the 1960s. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that there is ample room to increase tobacco prices through taxation. In too many countries, cigarette prices have failed to keep up with increases in the general price level of goods and services, rendering them more affordable in 2000 than they were at the beginning of the decade. Opportunities to increase government revenue and improve health through reduced consumption brought about by higher prices have been overlooked in many countries.     

烟支含水率对卷烟烟气成分的影响

为分析烟支含水率对烤烟烟气成分的影响,通过不同相对湿度平衡烟支得到不同含水率的试验样品,对卷烟样品主流烟气成分进行分析.结果表明,烟支含水率对烟碱、甲醛、苯酚、挥发酸、丙二醇、丙_三醇、柠檬烯、新植二烯有明显影响.     

我国居民肉类消费研究

我国具有生产和消费肉类的悠久历史和传统,本文对我国居民肉类的消费情况作了一个系统的分析,研究了肉类消费的影响因素,预测了我国肉类消费的发展前景。     

中国卷烟消费者构成及消费特性统计研究的体系构架

通过对中国城、乡居民消费基本状况的分析,确定了卷烟消费者研究的细分原则,形成了研究样本抽取及城乡居民卷烟消费调查方法,对中国城、乡居民卷烟消费者研究的指标进行设计并选样介绍了部分实际应用范例。      

27 mm滤嘴长卷烟材料多因素对主流烟气递送量及过滤效率的影响

采用正交试验设计的方法研究27 mm滤嘴长卷烟之卷烟纸、成型纸、接装纸及嘴棒组合搭配对国标规定的卷烟主流烟气递送量（包括焦油量、烟气烟碱量、烟气CO及烟气水分）及过滤效率的影响。结果表明:接装纸透气度及嘴棒吸阻是影响卷烟主流烟气递送量的高度显著因素及重要因素;成型纸透气度及嘴棒吸阻是影响过滤效率的高度显著因素及重要因素。重点对接装纸透气度、成型纸透气度及嘴棒吸阻进行调整和控制,可以很好地实现对27 mm滤嘴长卷烟主流烟气递送量及过滤效率的控制,减少产品质量波动,降低产品成本。使用该方法可快捷、高效、经济、准确地确定卷烟材料多因素对卷烟主流烟气递送量及过滤效率的影响规律。      

圆周及滤嘴通风对卷烟主流烟气碱性香味成分释放量的影响

为研究圆周及滤嘴通风率对卷烟主流烟气中碱性香味成分释放量的影响,采用CH2Cl2浸提、GC/MS分析的方法测定了不同圆周和滤嘴通风相互搭配的卷烟样品主流烟气中21种碱性香味成分的释放量。结果表明:(1)每克烟丝释放的各类碱性香味成分以及碱性香味成分总量,随卷烟圆周的增大均呈增加的趋势,随卷烟滤嘴通风的增大均呈降低趋势;(2)方差分析结果显示,吡啶类、吡嗪类和喹啉类香味成分释放量以及碱性香味成分释放总量在不同滤嘴通风率间的差异均达极显著水平,吡嗪类、喹啉类香味成分释放量在不同圆周间的差异均达极显著水平;(3)增加相同的滤嘴通风,吡嗪类香味成分释放量降低幅度最大,其次为吡啶类和喹啉类香味成分。     

HXD气流干燥对卷烟综合质量的影响

对比分析了隧道式燃油烘丝机(HXD)气流干燥与CO2膨胀2种生产方式及HXD气流干燥叶丝不同掺配比例对配方烟丝质量和卷烟综合质量的影响.结果表明:掺配HXD气流干燥处理的膨胀叶丝能提高配方烟丝的整丝率,降低碎丝率,叶丝结构较合理,弹性较好;在实验牌号卷烟中,2种生产方式生产的膨胀叶丝掺配比例相同时,HXD气流膨胀叶丝卷烟感官质量较好,最佳掺配比例为15%.     

卷烟机参数对细支烟卷制的影响

研究了卷烟机针辊回丝量电压值、大风机压力、小风机压力等卷烟机关键工艺参数对细支烟机台运行情况和烟支物理质量的影响规律。结果表明:①针辊回丝量、大风机压力、小风机压力对细支卷烟机台设备运行情况和细支烟物理质量指标均有不同程度的影响;②回丝量对平整盘位置和空头率影响显著(P<0.05);③随着回丝量的增大,平整盘位置减小,压实量增大,空头率减小;④大风机压力对平整盘位置影响显著(P<0.05);⑤随着大风机负压的增大,平整盘位置减小。综上,增加回丝量可以减小细支烟空头率,改善细支烟的质量。