Price and cigarette consumption in Europe

Objective

To analyse the variation in demand for tobacco according to price of cigarettes across the European region.

Design

Cross‐sectional study.

Setting

All the 52 countries of the European region.

Participants

For each European country, data were collected on annual per adult cigarette consumption (2000), smoking prevalence (most recent), retail price of a pack of local and foreign brand cigarettes (around 2000), the gross domestic product adjusted by purchasing power parities, and the adult population (2000).

Main outcome measure

Price elasticity of demand for cigarettes (that is, the change in cigarette consumption according to a change in tobacco price) across all the European countries, estimated by double‐log multiple linear regression.

Results

Controlling for male to female prevalence ratio, price elasticities for consumption were −0.46 (95% confidence interval (CI) −0.74 to −0.17) and −0.74 (95% CI −1.13 to −0.35) for local and foreign brand, respectively. The inverse relation between cigarette price and consumption was stronger in countries not in the European Union (price elasticity for foreign brand cigarettes of −0.8) as compared to European Union countries (price elasticity of −0.4).

Conclusions

The result that, on average, in Europe smoking consumption decreases 5–7% for a 10% increase in the real price of cigarettes strongly supports an inverse association between price and cigarette smoking.     

Health consequences of reduced daily cigarette consumption

Objective

To determine the risk of dying from specified smoking‐related diseases and from any cause in heavy smoking men and women (⩾15 cigarettes/day), who reduced their daily cigarette consumption by >50%.

Design

A prospective cohort study.

Setting

Three counties in Norway.

Participants

24 959 men and 26 251 women, aged 20–49 years, screened for risk factors of cardiovascular disease in the mid‐1970s, screened again after 3–13 years, and followed up throughout 2003.

Outcomes

Absolute mortality and relative risks adjusted for confounding variables, of dying from all causes, cardiovascular disease, ischaemic heart disease, all smoking‐related cancer and lung cancer.

Results

With sustained heavy smokers as reference, the smokers of both sexes who reduced their daily consumption (reducers) had the following adjusted relative risks (95% confidence interval (CI)): of dying from any cause, 1.02 (0.84 to 1.22); cardiovascular disease, 1.02 (0.75 to 1.39); ischaemic heart disease, 0.96 (0.65 to 1.41); smoking‐related cancer, 0.86 (0.57 to 1.29); and lung cancer, 0.66 (0.36 to 1.21). The difference in cigarette consumption between two examinations was not a significant predictor of death from any of the causes. A follow‐up from a third screening of the subgroup who were reducers at both second and third examinations (sustained reducers) did not have a lower risk than those who were heavy smokers at all three examinations.

Conclusions

Long‐term follow‐up provides no evidence that heavy smokers who cut down their daily cigarette consumption by >50% reduce their risk of premature death significantly. In health education and patient counselling, it may give people false expectations to advise that reduction in consumption is associated with reduction in harm.Does reduced daily cigarette consumption lead to lower mortality from the serious health consequences of cigarette smoking? In other words, does a reduction in consumption bring about reduction in harm?Numerous population studies have given ample evidence that quitting smoking entirely results in a marked reduction in the ill effects of smoking. Up to now, however, only one large prospective study has explored the long‐term effects of unassisted reduced smoking. Godtfredsen et al^1,2,3,4 have pioneered in this field by following up a population of nearly 20 000 men and women living in Copenhagen, Denmark (the Copenhagen Centre for Prospective Population Studies). After mean observation periods ranging from 13.8 to 18 years, they published their results in a series of articles.The aim of this paper is to determine the risk in heavy smokers who reduced their cigarette consumption by at least 50%, named “reducers”, compared with those who continued as heavy smokers. We report on a Norwegian population of 51 210 men and women, aged 20–49 years, who were examined in the mid‐1970s for cardiovascular disease risk factors and were examined again during the next 3–13 years at least once. These people were followed up throughout 2003 for deaths from serious smoking‐related diseases and from all causes. The mean observation period is 21.2 years, maximum 27 years. A subgroup attended three screenings. This gave us the possibility to compare those who were reducers at the two last screenings (sustained reducers) with those who were heavy smokers at all three screenings (sustained heavy smokers).     

Tobacco and cigarette butt consumption in humans and animals

Discarded cigarette butts may present health risks to human infants and animals because of indiscriminate eating behaviours. Nicotine found in cigarette butts may cause vomiting and neurological toxicity; leachates of cigarette butts in aquatic environments may cause exposure to additional toxic chemicals including heavy metals, ethyl phenol and pesticide residues. This report reviews published and grey literature regarding cigarette butt waste consumption by children, pets and wildlife. Although reports of human and animal exposures number in the tens of thousands, severe toxic outcomes due to butt consumption are rare. Nonetheless, the ubiquity of cigarette butt waste and its potential for adverse effects on human and animal health warrants additional research and policy interventions to reduce the stream of these pollutants in the environment.     

烟叶碎片在卷烟降耗降焦工艺中的应用研究

研究了在混合烟丝中加入不同比例的烟叶碎片对混合烟丝填充值、烟支单重、卷烟焦油产生量以及感官质量的影响。结果表明，在混合烟丝中掺入适当比例的烟叶碎片，既可提高其填充值、降低烟支单重、减少卷烟焦油量的产生，且对感官质量无太大影响，又可充分利用烟叶原料，为卷烟降耗、降焦工艺提供了一种新的参考方法。     

烟支含水率对卷烟烟气成分的影响

为分析烟支含水率对烤烟烟气成分的影响,通过不同相对湿度平衡烟支得到不同含水率的试验样品,对卷烟样品主流烟气成分进行分析.结果表明,烟支含水率对烟碱、甲醛、苯酚、挥发酸、丙二醇、丙_三醇、柠檬烯、新植二烯有明显影响.     

Trends and affordability of cigarette prices: ample room for tax increases and related health gains

BACKGROUND: Increasing the price of tobacco products is arguably the most effective method of curbing the prevalence and consumption of tobacco products. Price increases would reduce the global burden of disease brought about by tobacco consumption. OBJECTIVES: To compare cigarette price data from more than 80 countries using varying methods, examine trends in prices and affordability during the 1990s, and explore various policy implications pertaining to tobacco prices. DESIGN: March 2001 cigarette price data from the Economist Intelligence Unit are used to compare cigarette prices across countries. To facilitate comparison and to assess affordability, prices are presented in US dollars, purchasing power parity (PPP) units using the Big Mac index as an indicator of PPP and in terms of minutes of labour required to purchase a pack of cigarettes. Annual real percentage changes in cigarette prices between 1990 and 2000 and annual changes in the minutes of labour required to buy cigarettes between 1991 and 2000 are also calculated to examine trends. RESULTS: Cigarette prices tend to be higher in wealthier countries and in countries that have strong tobacco control programmes. On the other hand, minutes of labour required to purchase cigarettes vary vastly between countries. Trends between 1990 and 2000 in real prices and minutes of labour indicate, with some exceptions, that cigarettes have become more expensive in most developed countries but more affordable in many developing countries. However, in the UK, despite recent increases in price, cigarettes are still more affordable than they were in the 1960s. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that there is ample room to increase tobacco prices through taxation. In too many countries, cigarette prices have failed to keep up with increases in the general price level of goods and services, rendering them more affordable in 2000 than they were at the beginning of the decade. Opportunities to increase government revenue and improve health through reduced consumption brought about by higher prices have been overlooked in many countries.     

我国居民肉类消费研究

我国具有生产和消费肉类的悠久历史和传统,本文对我国居民肉类的消费情况作了一个系统的分析,研究了肉类消费的影响因素,预测了我国肉类消费的发展前景。     

HXD气流干燥对卷烟综合质量的影响

对比分析了隧道式燃油烘丝机(HXD)气流干燥与CO2膨胀2种生产方式及HXD气流干燥叶丝不同掺配比例对配方烟丝质量和卷烟综合质量的影响.结果表明:掺配HXD气流干燥处理的膨胀叶丝能提高配方烟丝的整丝率,降低碎丝率,叶丝结构较合理,弹性较好;在实验牌号卷烟中,2种生产方式生产的膨胀叶丝掺配比例相同时,HXD气流膨胀叶丝卷烟感官质量较好,最佳掺配比例为15%.     

圆周及滤嘴通风对卷烟主流烟气碱性香味成分释放量的影响

为研究圆周及滤嘴通风率对卷烟主流烟气中碱性香味成分释放量的影响,采用CH2Cl2浸提、GC/MS分析的方法测定了不同圆周和滤嘴通风相互搭配的卷烟样品主流烟气中21种碱性香味成分的释放量。结果表明:(1)每克烟丝释放的各类碱性香味成分以及碱性香味成分总量,随卷烟圆周的增大均呈增加的趋势,随卷烟滤嘴通风的增大均呈降低趋势;(2)方差分析结果显示,吡啶类、吡嗪类和喹啉类香味成分释放量以及碱性香味成分释放总量在不同滤嘴通风率间的差异均达极显著水平,吡嗪类、喹啉类香味成分释放量在不同圆周间的差异均达极显著水平;(3)增加相同的滤嘴通风,吡嗪类香味成分释放量降低幅度最大,其次为吡啶类和喹啉类香味成分。     

低引燃倾向卷烟纸对卷烟感官特性的影响

为研究低引燃倾向(Low ignition propensity,简称LIP)卷烟纸对卷烟感官特性的影响,采用对比评吸的方法研究了LIP卷烟样品感官特性的变化趋势。结果表明:①LIP卷烟纸对卷烟样品感官特性的各项评价指标均有影响,尤其是香气风格影响较大;②LIP卷烟纸对烤烟型卷烟样品感官特性的影响大于混合型卷烟样品;随着卷烟价类的提高,LIP卷烟纸对卷烟样品感官特性指标影响的幅度增大;随着卷烟样品焦油量的提高,LIP卷烟纸对卷烟样品香气风格和香气质影响增大;③木浆LIP卷烟纸对卷烟样品感官特性指标的影响小于麻浆LIP卷烟纸。     

“江山”牌卷烟对人体免疫功能和血液流变学的影响

为考察"江山"牌卷烟对人体免疫功能和血液流变学方面的影响,应用直接免疫荧光标记全血溶血法及流式细胞仪检测外周血T细胞亚群(CD3+、CD4+、CD8+);应用免疫散射比浊法测定免疫球蛋白(IgG、IgM、IgA);应用酶法测定血清TC、TG、HDL-C、LDL-C含量;应用LG-R-80血液粘度仪测定血液粘度和血浆粘度。结果显示:吸食"江山"牌卷烟60d后,外周血CD4+明显升高,CD8+降低,CD4/+CD8+上升,LDL-C和Q明显降低。说明"江山"牌卷烟可能具有拮抗吸烟引起的机体细胞免疫功能降低和血脂升高的作用。     

Does a failed quit attempt reduce cigarette consumption following resumption of smoking? The effects of time and quit attempts on the longitudinal analysis of self-reported cigarette smoking intensity.

California Tobacco Survey respondents were asked the intensity of their cigarette smoking 1 year previously and at the time of the survey. Respondents reported a generally lower smoking intensity at survey time compared with 1 year previously. Multivariable statistical models on the change in smoking intensity in the past year were fitted to assess the effects of low-tar cigarette use, a quit attempt in the past year, smoking intensity 1 year previously, and demographic variables (age, education, income, and race). The most important predictor of change in intensity was the intensity 1 year previously. The next most important predictor was whether a quit attempt had been made in the previous year. The demographic variables also were found to have a significant effect, although their effects were of smaller magnitude. Low-tar cigarette use was not a significant predictor of change in intensity in multivariable analysis. The effect of a quit attempt on the reduction in intensity of smoking suggests that periods of cessation may reduce the intensity of smoking and the level of addiction for several months following relapse. Consequently, it may be important to control for cessation activity in studies comparing exposures from conventional tobacco products to exposures from new products that purport to offer lower harm.     

烟丝结构与卷烟单支重量和烟支密度及其稳定性的灰色关联分析

采用灰色关联方法分析了来料烟丝的结构与卷制后单支重虽和烟支密度及其稳定性的相关关系。结果表明：在试验范围内,大于3,35mm的长烟丝对卷烟单支重量和烟支密度的影响趋势与对其稳定性的影响趋势相反,即随着大于3．35mm烟丝比例的增加,卷烟单支最培和煳支密度减小但其稳定性下降;不同长度烟丝对卷烟单支重量和烟支密度及其稳定性的影响程度不同,大于5．60mm烟丝的影响较小,2．80～4．75mm烟丝的影响最大。     

卷烟的卷制水分变化对卷制质量的影响

实验发现,不讼一类卷烟还是一类卷烟,随着烟丝中水分的提高,整丝率变化率均显著增加,即抗碎性提高,一般适宜的卷烟水分应为：一类卷烟１３％,二类卷烟１３．５％左右,不宜过低。卷制过程中整丝率变化率在９２％－９５％的烟丝,抗碎性最佳,同一种烟丝,其整丝率变化率在不同的卷烟机上卷制时不尽相同。进而影响烟支单支重量、空头率,应尽量减少卷烟机后身对烟丝的造碎。     

中国农民食物消费与营养状况

伴随我国国民经济持续发展,农业和农村经济发展进入新的历史阶段。农产品供给实现了由长期短缺到总量基本平衡、丰年有余的历史性转变,人民生活水平不断提高,推动了食物需求持续增长。科技进步已经渗透到食物发展的各个环节,加速了传统食物的改造,拓宽了食物发展的空间。我国食物与营养发展进入了一个新的阶段。根据历史发展经验,这一阶段是居民食物消费方式发生转变的关键时期,大多数国家的人们由以消费粮食为主的传统食物消费观念,向以植物性食物与动物性食物合理搭配的现代消费观念转变。正确把握食物发展方向,选择符合我国国情的食物安…