Study of solid particle erosion on AISI D2 using angular silicon carbide and steel round grit particles

Abstract

In this study, the performance of AISI D2 steel subjected to solid particle erosion tests was analysed. This material has applications for tools and dies for blanking, wood milling cutters, cold-extruding and other operations requiring high compressive strength and excellent wear resistance. The erosion tests performed by using a rig developed according to some parameters of the ASTM G76-95 standard. Two abrasive were used, angular silicon carbide (SiC) and steel round grit, both, with a particle size of 400–420 μm. This allowed comparing the erosion severity of each abrasive particle. The tests were conducted using four different incident angles 30, 45, 60 and 90° with a particle velocity of 24±2 m s^?1 and a flow rate of 21±2·5 g min^?1 for silicon carbide and 48·5±3·5 g min^?1 for the steel round grit. The exposure testing time was 10 min. Subsequently, the surface damage was analysed with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) to identify the wear mechanisms. Additionally, atomic force microscopy (AFM) was conducted in order to obtain roughness of the surface damage at 60°. The results indicated that higher amount of mass loss was obtained by angular silicon carbide particles.     

Slurry Erosion–Corrosion of Carburized AISI 5117 Steel

The erosion–corrosion of carburized and untreated low alloy steel (AISI 5117) has been investigated using slurry whirling-arm test rig. Erosion–corrosion tests were carried out in slurries composed of sand particles and either tap water or 3 % NaCl solution. The tests were carried out with particles concentration of 1 wt% and slurry stream impact velocity of 15 m/s. Silica sand having a nominal size range of 250–355 μm was used as an erodent. It has been shown that the erosion and erosion–corrosion resistance of AISI 5117 low alloy steel can be effectively improved by carburizing for all impact angles. However, the effectiveness of carburizing was the highest for an impact angle of 45°, where the erosion and erosion–corrosion resistance were increased by 60–40 %, respectively, compared with that of the untreated material. The results showed that the treated and untreated specimens behaved as ductile materials under erosion and erosion–corrosion tests, and the maximum mass loss occurred at an impact angle of 45°. SEM analysis showed that the erosion tracks developed on the untreated specimens were wider and deeper than that formed on the carburized specimens for erosion and erosion–corrosion tests.     

Tribological Performance of Boronized,Nitrided, and Normalized AISI 4140 Steel against Hydrogenated Diamond-Like Carbon-Coated AISI D2 Steel

In the current work, AISI 4140 steel was pack-boronized at 950°C for 3 h and gas-nitrided at 550°C for 72 h. All specimens used in this work were prepared from the same steel bar. A 3-µm-thick diamond-like carbon (DLC) coating (a-C:H) was deposited on the AISI D2 high-carbon, high-chromium, cold-worked tool steel by a plasma-assisted chemical vapor deposition technique. Normalized, boronized, and nitrided steel pins were tested against DLC-coated AISI D2 steel at various normal loads (15, 30, 60, and 80 N) for 1,000 and 3,000 m sliding distance in ambient air. Specific wear rate of all pins decreased with increasing load, and a similar trend was observed for the coefficient of friction (COF). Microscopic and energy-dispersive spectroscopic (EDS) analysis confirmed the role of the transfer layer for a low COF with increasing load. At all loads, the specific wear rate of boronized pins was lower than that of the nitrided and normalized pin specimens. Boronized pins showed a specific wear rate in the range of 0.27 × 10^?8 to 0.44 × 10^?8 mm³/Nm and the COF was about 0.1.     

Characterization of erosion of gas pipelines by dry sand

In oil and gas industry, the economic considerations determine the selection of low cost materials, in general, carbon steel, for pipelines. However, another type of deformation that is not well understood is its erosion resistance. The objective of this study was to investigate the factors affecting the erosion of carbon steel in a dry sand stream. In this work, a laboratory built test rig was used to erode representative carbon steel plates with accelerated sand streams. The results revealed that the normal incidence sand stream of larger particles and higher impact velocities causes more erosion of the carbon steel. The highest erosion rate of 6.75 ± 0.16 was predicted at an impact angle of 90°, which was three times higher than the erosion rate at impact angle of 30°. Similarly, the erosion caused by the smaller particles was not as severe as the larger particles. The cross-section profiles revealed that the crater depth was increased from 7° to 32.8° with an increase in sand size from 200 µm to 600 µm. The deepest crater of 32.8° was induced by the largest sand size of 600 µm.     

Comparison of wear properties of tool steels AISI D2 and O1 with the same hardness

Two commercial cold work tool steels, AISI D2 and O1, were heat treated in order to obtain the same hardness 700 HV (60 HRc) and were subsequently tested in three different modes of wear, namely in adhesion, three-body and two-body abrasion, by using pin-on-disk, dry sand/rubber wheel apparatus and pin abrasion on SiC, respectively. Even though AISI O1 and D2 steel are heat treated to the same hardness, they perform differently under the three modes of wear examined. The results show that the steel microstructures play the most important role in determining the wear properties. For relatively low sliding speeds AISI O1 steel performs up to 12 times better than AISI D2 steel in adhesive wear. For higher sliding speeds, however, this order is reversed due to oxidation taking place on the surface of the AISI D2 steel. The wear rate of both tool steels in three-body and two-body abrasion wear is proportional to the applied load. In three-body abrasive wear, AISI D2 exhibits a normalised wear rate about two times lower than the AISI O1 tool steel, and this is due to the presence of the plate-like hard carbides in its microstructure. Both tool steels perform 3–8 times better in three-body abrasive wear conditions than in two-body abrasive wear.     

Tribological behaviour of AISI 316L stainless steel for biomedical applications

Abstract

The aim of this research is to study the tribological behaviour of AISI 316L stainless steel for surgical implants (total hip prosthesis). The tribological behaviour is evaluated by wear tests, using tribometers ball on disc and sphere on plane. These tests consisted of measuring the weight loss and the friction coefficient of stainless steel (SS) AISI 316L. The oscillating friction and wear tests have been carried out in ambient air with an oscillating tribotester in accord with standards ISO 7148, ASTM G99-95a and ASTM G133-95 under different conditions of normal applied load (3, 6 and 10 N) and sliding speed (1, 15 and 25 mm s^?1). A ball of 100Cr 6, 10 mm in diameter, is used as counter pairs. These tribological results are compared with those carried out with a tribometer type pin on disc under different conditions of normal load applied P (19·43, 28 and 44 N) and sliding speed (600 and 1020 rev min^?1). The behaviour observed for both samples suggests that the wear and friction mechanism during the tests is the same, and to increase the resistance to wear and friction of biomedical SS AISI 316L alloy used in total hip prosthesis (femoral stems), surface coating and treatment are necessary.     

Analysis of Wear Debris from Full-Scale Bearing Fatigue Tests Using the Ferrograph

The Ferrograph was used to determine the types and quantities of wear particles generated during full-scale bearing fatigue test. Deep-groove ball bearings made from AISI 52100 steel were used. A MIL-L-23699 tetraester lubricant was used in a Recirculating lubrication system containing a 49-μm absolute filter. Test conditions included a maximum Hertz stress of 2.4 GPa, a shaft speed of 15 000 rpm and a lubricant supply temperature of 74°C (165°F). four fatigue failures were detected by accelerometers in this test set. In general, the Ferrograph was more sensitive (up to 23 h) in detecting spall initiation than either accelerometers or the normal spectrographic oil analysis (SOAP). Four particle types were observed: normal rubbing wear particles, spheres, nonferrous particles, and severe wear (spall) fragments.     

Influence of the countermaterial on the dry sliding friction and wear behaviour of low temperature carburized AISI316L steel

Low temperature carburising (LTC) allows a significant hardness increase, with a consequent increase in wear resistance, without deteriorating corrosion behaviour. However, wear resistance strongly depends on contact conditions, therefore this work focuses on the dry sliding behaviour of LTC-treated AISI316L austenitic stainless steel against several countermaterials (AISI316L, LTC-treated AISI316L, hard chromium or plasma-sprayed Al₂O₃–TiO₂). LTC produced a hardened surface layer (C-supersaturated expanded austenite), which improved corrosion resistance in NaCl 3.5% and increased wear resistance, to an extent which depends on both normal load and countermaterial. The best results were obtained when at least one of the contacting bodies was LTC-treated, because this condition led to mild tribo-oxidative wear. However, LTC did not improve the behaviour in terms of friction.     

Effect of temperature on friction and wear of prehardened tool steel during sliding against 22MnB5 steel

Abstract

Mechanical components in tribological systems exposed to elevated temperatures are gaining increased attention since more and more systems are designed to operate under extreme conditions. In hot metal forming, the effect of temperature on friction and wear is especially important since it is directly related to process economy (tool wear) and quality of the produced parts (friction between tool and workpiece). This study is therefore focused on fundamental understanding pertaining to the tribological characteristics of prehardened hot work tool steel during sliding against 22MnB5 boron steel. The tribological tests were carried out using a high temperature reciprocating sliding friction and wear tester under a normal load of 31 N (corresponding to a contact pressure of 10 MPa), a sliding speed of 0·2 m s^?1 and temperatures ranging from 40°C to 800°C. It was found that friction coefficient and specific wear rate decreased at elevated temperature because of formation of compacted wear debris layers on the surfaces.     

High temperature friction and wear mechanism map for tool steel and boron steel tribopair

Abstract

Tribological systems working under severe conditions like high pressures, sliding velocities and temperatures are subjected to different phenomena such as wear, oxidation and changes in mechanical properties. In many cases, there are several mechanisms occurring simultaneously. The predominating type(s) of wear mechanism(s) presented will depend on the materials in contact, operating parameters and surrounding environment. In this work, high temperature tribological studies of boron steel sliding against tool steel were conducted using a pin-on-disc machine under unlubricated conditions at five different temperatures ranging from 25 to 400°C, three different loads: 25, 50 and 75 N (contact pressures of 2, 4 and 6 MPa respectively) and a sliding speed of 0·2 ms^?1. Scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive spectroscopy and X-ray techniques were used for analysing the resulting damage and tribolayers of the worn surfaces. Additionally, hardness measurements were carried out in a special hot hardness rig in the same temperature range as that used in pin-on-disc tests. The results have shown that for a given load, the wear rate of boron steel decreased as the temperature increased, reaching its lowest value at 400°C at 50 N. In the case of the tool steel, it could be observed that at 200°C and above, the wear rate decreased as the load increased. This behaviour is consistent with the formation of a protective oxidised layer initiated at 100°C. At higher temperatures, such layers become more pronounced. The obtained data were finally used to construct a friction and wear mechanism map for this material pair that takes temperature and pressure into account.     

Effect of cryogenic treatment on the tribological behaviour of H11 hot die steel dry sliding against D3 steel

The tribological behaviour, hardness and microstructural characteristics of vacuum and cryogenically treated AISI H11 steel at varied soaking temperature (?154 and ?184 °C) for specific time period (6, 21 and 36 h) have been examined in this research work. The influence of selected parameters on the tribological behaviour have been studied at five levels of varying sliding velocities (0.628–1.885 m/s) and normal loads (60–140 N) through block–on–ring dry sliding wear test against hardened and tempered AISI D3 tool steel (counter face). The experiments are designed based on full factorial response surface methodology. The responses (wear rate, average coefficient of friction and maximum contact temperature) are analyzed based on plotted graphs. The results reveal that 21 h at ?184 °C for H11steel is the optimal soak time to have the lowest wear rate. The sliding speed influences the wear rate more in comparison to load. Wear debris have shape of metallic plate. Carbide particles appeared to delaminate from the sample surface due to subsurface cracks and plastic deformation. The augmentation of apparent and bulk hardness number and wear resistance ascribed to the increase in number of fine globular secondary carbide and improved morphology of matrix microstructure of cryogenic-treated sample. It is also observed that cryogenic treatment reduces the retained austenite content to near zero.     

Relation Between Tribolayers and Wear Behavior During Dry Sliding of Fe-Al Hot-Dipped Coating

An Fe-Al coating consisting of FeAl and Fe₃Al was prepared on AISI 1045 steel by hot-dip aluminizing and subsequent high-temperature diffusion. Dry sliding wear tests were performed for Fe-Al coating against AISI 52100 steel under various sliding speeds and loads. During sliding, thin tribolayers formed on the worn surfaces of the Fe-Al coating. After wear, they were observed to be a nonoxidized mechanically mixed layer (MML) at 0.5 m/s, an oxide-containing MML at 0.75–2.68 m/s, and an in situ oxide layer at 4 m/s. The tribolayers presented a close relation with the wear behavior. Because of their different ingredients, structures, and types, the tribolayers resulted in significant changes in the wear behavior. At 0.75–2.68 m/s (except for 2.68 m/s, 40 N), the compact tribooxide layers exerted a protective function for Fe-Al coating to reduce the wear rate. However, for the tribolayers containing no or trace tribooxides at 0.5 m/s or the unstable ones formed at 2.68 m/s, 40 N and 4 m/s, no protection was presented. In these cases, the Fe-Al coating would be partly or totally ground off, thus presenting poor wear resistance at high wear rates.     

基于CFD数值模拟的异面三通管冲蚀磨损规律研究*

针对管道在输送过程中,由流体中固态颗粒产生的冲蚀磨损导致的失效问题,通过CFD-DPM模型开展关于不同流速、颗粒直径、含砂体积比和异面管夹角对异面三通冲蚀磨损性能影响的分析。结果表明：三管交汇处的弯面是管道主要发生冲蚀磨损的位置,水平两管弯头上侧管壁处是受损最为严重的部位;在流速2~10 m/s、含砂体积比1%~9%、异面管夹角90°~150°、颗粒直径0.1~0.5 mm时,管道的最大冲蚀率随着流速增大呈指数型增长,冲蚀面积明显扩张;低流速下,含砂体积比对最大冲蚀率影响较弱,高流速下,最大冲蚀率与含砂体积比呈线性正相关;异面管夹角的增大降低了管道对固体颗粒的流动约束性,其冲蚀率呈线性减小;最大冲蚀率随颗粒直径的增大整体呈现平缓上升的趋势,大颗粒产生的冲蚀破坏相比小颗粒更为集中一些。     

Erosion of metals by flyash particles

The erosion of metal targets by flyash from power station electrostatic precipitators was investigated using a novel test rig. Targets of BG303 stainless steel and HE30 aluminium were used. The effects of target temperature and angle of impingement were studied. The size of particles used was less than 66 μm. The rig utilizes a tube with a fine bore to accelerate particles borne by an air flow; the air flow is then separated from the particle stream with a simple Coanda effect attachment on the end of the tube. The targets are heated indirectly with a high resistance heater element. Target temperatures up to 750 °C were attained. The observed erosion characteristics are consistent with previous work. For stainless steel, the erosion rate increases with increasing temperature above 400 °C. For aluminium the erosion rate reaches a maximum value at approximately 300 °C.     

Characteristics of particles generated at the interface between sliding steel surfaces

This paper is an attempt to further clarify and classify the range of wear modes which can occur at the interface between steel surfaces subjected to sliding motion, a variety of speeds and loads, with and without lubrication. Previous researchers have been able, from examination of the wearing surfaces, to identify a number of distinct wear modes and to classify them according to operating conditions. The present paper shows that it is possible to arrive at a comparable classification of wear modes based on examination of the wear debris rather than the worn surfaces. Consequently, it is possible to determine the wear modes in a machine from observation of the debris in the lubricant without requiring access to the wear surfaces themselves.The wear particles were generated by rotating a cylindrical sleeve of AISI 52100 steel in contact with three types of fixed wearing surfaces, crossed AISI 52100 steel cylinders, fixed spherical balls of AISI 52100 and AISI 1018 steel and a flat plate of AISI 1018 steel. Surface speeds ranged from 0.19 to 5.0 m/s and the load from 1 to 80 kg. These particles were collected and examined in both an optical and a scanning electron microscope. X-ray diffraction studies of selected particle types were also made.These studies revealed six different wear regimes which depended on the test parameters. Each regime produced wear particles of characteristic morphology and composition. All of the types of particles studied here have been found in the lubricating oil of field operating machines.     

Characteristics of complicated AISI316L automobile components manufactured by powder/metallurgy

Indirect Selective Laser Sintering/Isostatic Pressing (SLS/IP), with Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIPing) and Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIPing) IPs, is adopted for the manufacture of complicated automobile components. The preparation of PA12-coated AISI316L powder and airproof plastic canning during CIPing are also investigated. The influence of technology parameters on the performances of AISI316L specimens during SLS/IP is likewise analyzed. Results show that PA12-coated AISI316L powders are successfully prepared through the dissolution and precipitation process, and that it is better to fabricate airproof canning for complicated components with natural latex. After sintering AISI316L specimens from 1300°C to 1340°C (CIPed at more than 300 MPa ahead), their relative densities increased, approaching 92%. Subsequently, their relative densities are improved by HIPing, whose optimal pressure and temperature parameters are between 90 MPa and 20 MPa, and 1150°C and 1250°, respectively. The optimal tensile performances are close to those of annealed AISI316L compact materials. This paper was presented at the 9^th Asian International Conference on Fluid Machinery (AICFM9), Jeju, Korea, October 16–19, 2007.recommended for publication in revised form by Associate Editor Dae-Eim Kim L. Zhong Liang received his Ph.D. degree from HUST, China, in 2008. Dr. ZhongLiang is currently a Postdoctoral student at XJTU in China, specializing in the investigation of RPM. He has achieved three patents and has published over 10 papers. Of these, five papers have been indexed in SCI. S. Yu Sheng is currently a professor at HUST, China, and is also specializing in the investigation of RPM. He has published more than 100 papers and has achieved more then 20 patents. From his works, 30 papers have been indexed in SCI.     

AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON WEAR ASPECTS OF TAPPING OPERATION ON HARDENED STEELS

Tapping is one of the most intensively used operations for internal threads with diameters below about 15 mm. When a tap fails, the workpiece has a significant added value. The present work investigates some aspects of wear and performance when solid carbide coated taps M10 × 1.5 cut hardened AISI H13 and AISI D2. The results indicated that it was possible to make threads on hardened AISI D2, although the number of holes was essentially low and tool breakage was often. Threads on hardened AISI H13 was possible with reasonably low tool wear. Cutting surface presented some indication of small flaws due to the adhered material on the taps.     

Direct laser cladding of SiC dispersed AISI 316L stainless steel

The present study concerns development of SiC dispersed (5 and 20 wt%) AISI 316L stainless steel metal-matrix composites by direct laser cladding with a high power diode laser and evaluation of its mechanical properties (microhardness and wear resistance). A defect free and homogeneous composite layer is formed under optimum processing condition. The microstructure consists of partially dissociated SiC, Cr₃C₂ and Fe₂Si in grain refined stainless steel matrix. The microhardness of the clad layer increases to a maximum of 340 VHN (for 5% SiC dispersed) and 800 VHN (for 20% SiC dispersed) as compared to 150 VHN of commercially available AISI 316L stainless steel. Direct laser clad SiC dispersed AISI 316L stainless steel has shown an improved wear resistance against diamond surface with a maximum improvement in 20% SiC dispersed AISI 316L stainless steel. The mechanism of wear was predominantly abrasive in nature.     

Tribological Properties of Borided AISI 4140 Steel with the Powder Pack-Boriding Method

The present study evaluates the tribological properties of boride layers on the surface of AISI 4140 steel, formed using the pack-boriding method. Commercial EKabor^®2 was used as the boronizing agent and the treatment was carried out at 900, 950, 1000, and 1050 °C for 2, 4, and 6 h, respectively. X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and microhardness tests were used to characterize the phase composition, microstructure, and local hardness, respectively, of the borided steel samples. Block-on-disc tests were used to investigate tribological properties. Abrasive wear tests were carried out using emery paper at a fixed sliding speed and three different loads. Adhesive wear tests were executed against AISI 52100 steel at a fixed load and distance. The coefficient of friction values (COF) of the samples were determined simultaneously during the tests. The weight loss and COF of the borided samples were compared with untreated samples and the results suggest that both wear resistance and friction properties of the AISI 4140 steel improve with boriding.     

Particle size effects on the slurry erosion of aluminium alloy (AA 6063)

The effect of particle size on erosion wear of aluminium alloy (AA 6063) has been investigated in a slurry pot tester. Eight different sized quartz particles with mean size varying between 37.5 and 655 μm have been used. The wear specimens are rotated inside the pot at 3 m/s velocity with orientation angle of 30° and 90° in a sand–water mixture of 20% concentration (by weight). It is seen that the erosion wear increases with increase in mean particle size. Two distinct mechanisms are noticed for mean particle size above 200 μm and below this size for the range of parameters under this investigation. It seems that a threshold kinetic energy of impacting particle may exist, which results in change in the wear rate at a particular particle size. The threshold kinetic energy for different operating conditions has been determined and its relation with the change in erosion mechanism is discussed.