Integrated urban renewal in The Netherlands: a critical appraisal

Urban renewal policies in The Netherlands already have a long history, which is characterised by varying attention for either smaller-scale (neighbourhood) or larger-scale (city) issues, and for either physical, social or economic questions. These variations run parallel with more general discourses on urban dynamics and perceptions of processes in (urban) society at large. In this paper the recent history of urban renewal policies will be briefly sketched, including their main orientations. Recent Big Citie Policies, currently in the third generation, will receive special attention and the actual policy discourse will be critically evaluated and confronted with some essential empirical findings. In this process, the Dutch policy on integrated urban renewal shows clear parallels with the experience in other Western European countries, demonstrating that a Western European paradigm of urban policies is in the making: integrated, area-based, with involvement of both public and market partners and residents. Nevertheless, the Dutch case is more outspoken than the approaches in other Western European countries, by paying more attention to the issue of social cohesion or integration and to the promotion of social mix as a solution for a lack of social cohesion in neighbourhoods. At the same time it is clear that this new paradigm of urban policies shows the characteristics of a discourse that is not based on research and on empirical facts, but that develops its own momentum from shared beliefs regarding the nature of urban problems and the appropriate policy responses. This new paradigm needs reconsideration.     

Social cohesion,social mix,and urban policies in the Netherlands

Urban policy in the Netherlands has long been focused on improving disadvantaged urban districts. In the last 13 years policy has become particularly area-based. Here the spatial concentration of low-income households has been seen as a highly problematic issue. Because of this negative view of these concentrations, a housing mix in the problematic urban areas has been considered to be one of the most promising solutions. A housing mix would result in a social mix and more social cohesion within the district. Strikingly, numerous researchers point out that the social mix might not resolve the problems in those areas, while at the same time central and local government holds on to the idea of the mix. We give some background of urban policy in the Netherlands and focus on the relationship between social mix and social cohesion. After a brief review of the literature on this relationship, we give an account of recent Dutch urban policies, particularly on the role of social mix and social cohesion within them. This review yields some important inferences for future urban policies in the Netherlands and other West European countries.     

西方城市更新运动及其法制建设过程对我国的启示

本文主要分析了二战后西方国家城市更新运动的发展历程及其法制建设过程,根据不同时期的发展特点将其划分为三个阶段。这种阶段性是和西方国家不同时期经济、社会以及政治等因素紧密联系的,而且每个阶段的城市更新运动都有相应的政策法规与之配套。通过这种分析,得出对中国城市更新的有益启示。     

European urban development: Sustainability and the role of housing

In the new Millennium, sustainable urbandevelopment is becoming a fashionable topic,almost as popular as globalization or citycompetition. European countries differ widelyfrom each other on whether they have a nationalpolicy for urban development or not, and if so,on the emphasis of such a policy. Pan Europeanorganizations are reluctant to establish aclear vision of a desirable European pathtoward urban development. This is even true forthe European Union: although the EU is runningextensive systems of support policies, it hasno clear expectation of how European citiesshould develop or what they should look like inthe future. (The European Spatial DevelopmentPerspective, ESDP, contains some statementsabout desirable urban development, but this isfar from being a binding document or havingsubstantial influence on the allocation ofmeans of support.)The criticism leveled at the EU for having nocommon policy for the future of its citiesshould be seen in perspective, as the lack ofideas/patterns for sustainable urbandevelopment is even more visible in theaccession countries and in Eastern Europe. Thedramatic changes in the cities of thepost-socialist countries even appear to bemoving in the opposite direction – away fromsustainability.Sustainability is a complex phenomenon, havingeconomic, environmental and social aspects. Anyconcept of sustainable urban development mustincorporate sectoral concepts; these must bewell integrated in the overarching urban,regional and governance policies.One sectoral policy of great importance tosustainable development is housing. Withoutsuitable suggestions for housing policies, noconcept of sustainable development can besuccessful (and vice versa). Yet, housing isone of the less frequently discussed aspects ofsustainability. This might be explained by theway housing research has developed; economicand social aspects have taken precedence overenvironmental effects and externalities. Ofcourse, the fact that housing is not part ofthe common policies of the EU also helpsexplain the present situation.This paper elaborates on the link betweenhousing and urban development. Using examplesof good and not so good practices, we considerwhy housing experts should investigate theenvironmental and spatial externalities ofhousing policies and why experts working onurban development policies should take theresults of such analyses into account. Suchcollaboration could raise the status ofsustainable urban policies supported bysuitable housing policies.The analysis presented here pertains to theWestern and Central parts of Europe, roughly tothe area of the soon-to-be-enlarged EuropeanUnion.The structure of the paper is as follows. Thefirst chapter discusses models and trends ofurban development. The second chapter gives anoverview of policies with the potential toinfluence urban development, followed by goodand not so good examples for such policiestaken from both Western and Eastern Europe. Thethird and fourth chapters concentrate on largehousing estates, where interventions wereneeded to ensure the sustainability ofdevelopment. Finally, chapter five offers someconcluding remarks.     

The path to successful urban renewal: Current policy debates in the Netherlands

In Dutch urban renewal, we observe an implementation gap between dreaming and doing. Dutch national government recently proposed to focus urban renewal on more than 50 priority areas in the cities and to reduce urban renewal subsidies. It is not very likely that this policy will accelerate urban renewal. This contribution suggests a different approach: the formulation of an urban district vision shared by the sustainable stakeholders in those districts. If they can come to an agreement, they deserve housing association finance and public urban renewal support. By targeting the plans primarily on the social climbers in the urban districts involved, the city can keep their buying power within the city. Combining physical, social, economic and safety agendas and adopting a multi-functional orientation would seem to be a successful strategy.     

Regeneration of Dutch post-war urban districts: the role of housing associations

In the Netherlands the regeneration of post-war urban districts is closely intertwined with the role of housing associations. This is hardly surprising, given that the housing associations have such a large share of the market (usually over 50%; sometimes nearly 100%) in many early post-war urban districts. This has caused a growing concentration of low-income households in those urban areas and a selective migration by middle- and high-income households from the city to the suburb. Official government policy on housing and urban renewal is directed at a redifferentiation of the urban housing stock. Specifically, the policy promotes more owner-occupation, larger and higher-quality homes, and a greater percentage of homes with a garden. This implies the demolition of social housing estates and selling social housing. The position of housing associations in the regeneration of Dutch post-war urban districts is somewhat enigmatic. On the one hand, national government is expecting them to take initiative and invest in urban renewal; on the other, government is urging them to cut down their market share. How are housing associations coping with this paradoxical challenge? And what are the current national policies about the position of housing associations? Aedes (the umbrella organisation of Dutch housing associations) and the Dutch Ministry of Housing have agreed upon the so-called great transition of housing associations. Here we explain and critique this great transition, which will hamper the current regeneration of Dutch urban districts. As an alternative we present the new transition.     

Social implications of housing diversification in urban renewal: A review of recent literature

British and Dutch urban policies have advocated housing diversification and social mix in neighbourhoods subject to urban renewal. Question marks have been placed against the evidence base for the assumed social effects of diversification. This paper provides a review of research into the actual consequences of diversification in Great Britain and the Netherlands. After a brief policy discussion, the paper identifies five issues for which evidence is reviewed: housing quality and area reputation, neighbourhood-based social interactions, residential attitudes towards social mix, the role-model effect, and problem dilution. The review shows ambivalent results that necessitate modest expectations, especially with regard to area reputation, cross-tenure social interaction and residential attitudes. This ambivalence is partly due to unclear policy goals and policy terms as well as vagueness about the relevant spatial level. Moreover, the influence of tenure mix is often superseded by other, more important factors in residential satisfaction, such as lifestyle. The paper also argues that positive role-model effects in neighbourhoods have not yet been adequately studied and therefore remain based on conviction.     

法国的城市政策——社会融合作为解决隔离问题的公共手段？

法国与欧洲其他国家一样,自上个世纪80年代开始实施新的“地区政策”,以减少隔离及其在相关城市区域与贫困人群的整合过程中所产生的“消极”影响。即使2003年推行的城市更新计划在城市与社会行动之间引起一定的割裂,但80年代所确立的三个支柱一地域的、综合的以及参与式的政策却依然适用。作为一种避免“贫困社区”的适当方式,“社会融合”的理念开始越来越多地在不同层面被城市政策所采纳。社会住房问题在城市更新的多样化战略中是一个关键问题,正如《社会团结与城市更新法》所规定的那样,地方政府在社会住房少于20％的情况下应加强社会住房建设。这些社会融合策略的社会影响并不是非常明显,它与迁移进程,地方市场是相关联的,而公共行动对这些因素并没有予以足够重视。     

An asset-based approach to policymaking: revisiting the history of urban planning and neighborhood change in Cincinnati’s West End

While planners and policymakers have recognized the role of the local assets, including physical capital (housing stock, roads, and the public space) and social capital (the informal networks of trust and reciprocity) in creating healthy communities, the nexus between such assets and policymaking remains vague. This article explores this linkage by chronicling the implementation of various urban policies, including triage, urban renewal, the Model Cities Program, and the Housing Opportunities for People Everywhere (HOPE VI Program) in the West End of Cincinnati. The critical examination of such programs helps us to differentiate between an asset-based as opposed to the conventional need-based approach to policymaking, and to explore the mutual impacts of government policies and the target groups that are affected by them; policies could result in the formation or destruction of the local assets (social capital). The study offers a conceptual framework consisting of policy networks defined in terms of policy type and target groups. Two additional concepts used to evaluate the mutual impacts of policies and target groups include interconnectedness (the strength of relationship between government and the target group) and cohesion (the distribution of objectives among the actors).     

European Competition Policy and National Housing Policies: International Implications of the Dutch Case

This contribution explores the relationship between housing policy, which is the responsibility of national governments, and competition policy, including the decision on the legitimacy of state support, which is the responsibility of the European Commission (EC). The paper paints a general picture of EU policy on competition and state support and describes the Dutch social housing system. Attention then turns to the recent intervention by the European Commission in the governance of Dutch social housing and it is asked whether the factors that prompted the intervention exist in other EU member states as well. The analysis shows that this is indeed the case. It is concluded that the intervention of the EC in the Netherlands could become a precedent for other European countries, particularly for those countries that opt against a residualised social rented sector and for a competitive role of social housing providers on the housing market.     

Towards more Social Cohesion in Large Post-Second World War Housing Estates? A Case Study in Utrecht,the Netherlands1

The last few years have seen many studies of large post-Second World War housing estates. At present they are often the most deprived areas of European cities. The turnover of the population on these estates is characteristically rapid, leading to considerable socio-economic and socio-cultural changes and a multi-ethnic neighbourhood. Such areas often have to contend with severe physical, social and economic problems and the consequent dissatisfaction of the residents. This combination of rapid and selective population turnover and increasing numbers of problems may well affect aspects of social cohesion within these neighbourhoods, particularly the social networks. This process is regrettable, because social cohesion is regarded in a positive light, something that enhances the quality of life. Stimulating social cohesion is therefore an important objective of many policies that focus on large post-Second World War housing estates. The authors have found it interesting to discover how important social cohesion is in the opinions and the lives of the inhabitants rather than the policy makers. In their opinion, urban policies focus on social cohesion while the inhabitants' views of its relevance are unknown. On the basis of this paper, certain aspects of social cohesion in large post-Second World War housing estates appear to be valued, but housing market behaviour, such as residential moves, is hardly affected by aspects of social cohesion. Other aspects, such as moving to a better house, are much more relevant. The results may put into doubt the stress placed in urban policies on social cohesion.     

Reframing social mix in affordable housing initiatives in Italy and in the Netherlands. Closing the gap between discourses and practices?

European countries are facing rising demand for affordable housing by a widespread and differentiated audience. Both in Italy and in the Netherlands policy-makers and practitioners address this emerging need by implementing new social housing projects targeting diverse social groups – such as students, young households, welfare dependents, and refugees – which results in a fine-grained social mix. This paper discusses the development of these initiatives within wider trends in housing policies and in relation to the domestic debate on social mix in the two countries. Drawing on Magic Mix and Housing Sociale projects as case studies, respectively in the Netherlands and in Italy, we aim to explore and unfold the contemporary meanings and the practices attached to the idea of social mix. In so doing, this paper paves the way for a new conceptualization of social mix in the current post-crisis and hyper-diversified European scenario. We discuss traces of continuity and discontinuity between these forms of social mix and the mainstream idea of tenure mix, which has been a cornerstone of area-based urban renewal policy in many European countries. This paper contributes to the existing literature by offering insights into new practices of social mix in housing sphere.     

当代西欧城市更新的特点与趋势分析

简要回顾西欧城市更新的六个发展阶段,分析当代西欧城市更新的基本特点和面临的诸多问题与矛盾,最后从地域空间、规模手段、关注层面、内容特色等方面研究与总结当代西欧城市更新的发展趋势。     

From SIF to City Fund: a new direction for urban policy in Flanders,Belgium

For years, analysts have wondered about the exceptional place that Belgium, and in particular Flanders, has taken in the urban policy landscape. Contrary to neighbouring, equally strongly urbanised Western European countries, Flanders maintained a tradition of neglect towards its urban centres, linked to the hegemony of a rural-based Christian-democratic party. In the 1990’s, this tradition was converted into an urban policy approach which, equally at odds with developments towards urban entrepreneurialism in other Western European countries, remained strongly oriented towards social policy. Only in 1999, when, for the first time in 50 years Christian-democrats resigned from government, the Flemish discourse took a more pro-urban and entrepreneurial approach. This paper shows how this discursive shift at the regional scale is reflected in local urban policy-making practices and warns against the detrimental social effects it might have on the field.

Innovation in Urban Policy: The Experience of Italian Urban Time Policies

ABSTRACT Urban time policies are public policies that intervene in the time schedules and time organization that regulate human relationships at the urban level. Urban time policies were launched in Italy at the end of the 1980s. Within a span of 10 to 15 years, 170 municipalities have been involved in time-oriented projects or timetable plans, or in studies of urban social time. There has also been a diffusion into several countries of the European Union, especially in Germany and France. Now the diffusion is starting in Spain, the Netherlands and Belgium. In this article, the development of urban time policies in Italy is reviewed up to the new national law of 2000. The article examines how urban and social time emerged as a new theme of public policy, and the way it has been translated into public actions. In Italy, 15 years of experience and a new national law brought urban planners, sociologists and policy makers to think over the role of these city actions and over the nature of innovation in these policies. In conclusion, the article underlines the innovative aspects of Italian urban time policies (urban and social time became a new way to examine urban transformations and a new stake for urban policies; it offered an integrated approach to planning management; experimentation has been the driver of innovation) and how urban time policies can be considered an enrichment of traditional town planning (they offered a wider problem solving articulation acting also on timetables; they provided a new concept, chronotopes, to study and design urban transformation and, finally, they encouraged social, political and institutional capacity-building in urban action and planning).     

Towards a territorialized approach to urban renewal: A comparison of policies in France and the Netherlands

Urban renewal is an important objective of public policies in France and in the Netherlands. In both countries, central government involvement in urban renewal is evolving from direct intervention through sectoral subsidies, towards a “territorialized” policy. Funding for urban renewal is made available for local planning authorities in contracts with central government. These contracts are based on territorial strategies elaborated at the local level. This takes place in a context where the role of the public sector is changing. Local planning authorities become more autonomous and depend to a lesser extent on central government. At the same time, they develop a more businesslike approach towards co-operation with private bodies. In this article, the evolution of urban renewal policies in France and the Netherlands is examined within this context. It appears that in both countries, a territorialized approach towards urban renewal is found to be adequate. However, important questions remain unanswered regarding the appropriate level of public intervention, its legitimacy, the division of risks and rewards among partners in urban renewal projects, and the capacity of local planning authorities.     

The quality of integrated urban strategies in light of the Europe 2020 strategy: The case of Slovenia

European Strategy 2020, a series of priorities and initiatives that will transform the EU into a smart, sustainable and inclusive economy, with high rates of employment, productivity and social cohesion, recognized cities as units crucial for social, cultural and economic progress and sparked the development of new integrated urban strategies (IUSs) across the EU. By the end of 2016, 11 Slovenian cities had developed and ratified their own strategic plans in order to manage their urban development. We analyzed the content of the IUSs and supporting documents of Slovenian cities in order to evaluate the quality of IUSs in terms of empirical groundedness, logical consistency and structure and to assess the conformity of these documents with Europe 2020 strategy and national guidelines. Our results show that the IUSs of Slovenian cities are generally of low quality and that they conform to the Europe 2020 strategy poorly, but rather more to national guidelines defined by the Slovenian government. The implications of these findings for EU policy in the area of urban development are discussed.     

Disentangling neighbourhood problems: area-based interventions in Western European cities

Urban policies in Western Europe have increasingly taken a territorial focus in addressing social problems through area-based initiatives (ABIs). Policy discourses emphasise the role of the residential environment in the social economic deprivation. However, a territorial focus that tackles both place-based issues and people-based problems would only make sense either when a ‘critical representation’ of the target population resides in several areas in an already divided city, or when neighbourhood effects take place. In the European context, the existence of either scenario is not a matter of fact. Our overview of four urban policies reveals that even though the rhetoric makes multiple allusions to the existence of the two scenarios, there is no convincing evidence. Moreover, in some cases the evidence refutes policy assumptions. This means that the policies are merely tackling unrelated problems: people-based social economic deprivation and place-based liveability and housing issues. In addition, urban policies stand against a backdrop of social and cultural integration debates. It is unknown what the territorial focus will do for integration, but it is unlikely that ABIs will be successful in effectively tackling social economic deprivation in European societies.     

Place-bound versus footloose firms: wiring metropolitan areas in a policy context

In the development of modern urban systems, we are facing a shift from central cities as the major location of coordination functions, high-order services and innovative activities, to interconnected nodes at some distance in a larger metropolitan area. However, which cities in the emerging new spatial constellation qualify to become such a node is not yet clear, and depends also on the organizing capacity of the municipalities involved. This article addresses spread over a larger metropolitan area from the point of view of place-bound versus footloose behavior of young, innovative firms as the drivers of economic renewal. A theoretical review of location needs and footlooseness is followed by an empirical contribution to identify whether increased footlooseness of such companies is emerging in the Netherlands. The results prompt the need for a more thorough reflection on related policy issues. The policy part of the article addresses in particular some evolutionary views to understand why urban policymaking is subject to various systemic constraints, while next some empirical results on weaknesses in the urban organizing capacity to benefit from a shift towards a global metropolitan area are highlighted. In this context, we focus the attention specifically on policies dealing with information and communication technology and the uncertainty at hand.     

Redifferentiation of the Urban Housing Stock in the Netherlands: A Strategy to Prevent Spatial Segregation?

In advanced countries the issue of spatial segregation is perceived as a major problem. In many urban neighbourhoods spatial concentrations of social insecurity, criminality and vandalism can be observed. The political challenge is to improve the quality of life in cities; a strategy has been adopted in several countries to promote mixed-income urban areas (Turner, 1997). Since 1995, the Dutch government has gradually become aware of the looming threat of spatial segregation. Measures are now being taken to prevent low-income districts from taking root. The state argues that the restructuring of urban districts and the redifferentiation of the urban housing stock are tools that will prevent spatial segregation. This paper presents the current public policies in the Netherlands which are designed to prevent spatial segregation, gives some background and discusses policy ambitions and their possible impacts in a critical way.