Fate of pharmaceuticals and bacteria in stored urine during precipitation and drying of struvite

Experiments were conducted to measure the behaviour of eight pharmaceuticals during urine treatment as part of the project 'SANIRESCH - Sustainable sanitary recycling Eschborn'. Urine was collected from 200 people in a public building via waterless urinals and NoMix toilets. It was then stored at room temperature at different pH values to analyse the extent to which bacteria and pharmaceuticals are eliminated over time. Although a partial elimination of pharmaceuticals could be detected, the storage at defined pH values cannot be advised. As the persons tested used pharmaceuticals with different structures, in different amounts and at varying intervals, this method of treatment is insufficient for removing them from urine. Precipitating the urine with MgO, washing it with saturated struvite solution and drying it at 30 °C will result in a free-flowing granular powder of struvite (NH(4)MgPO(4)·6H(2)O) that is free of pharmaceuticals and pathogens and can be used as fertiliser and a source of nitrogen, magnesium and phosphorus.     

珠江三角洲河网与河口区CBOD及TN和TP通量的模拟

基于一维河网与三维河口耦合水质模型,以1998年6月(丰水期)、1999年1月(枯水期)为案例计算分析珠江三角洲河网与河口区的碳质生化需氧量(CBOD)、总氮(TN)和总磷(TP)通量。结果表明,河网和河口区的污染物通量呈现明显的季节变化。在丰水期,河网区污染物的外源输入主要由上游输入的污染物通量(上游通量)贡献;经八大口门输入河口区的污染物通量(入河口通量)是河口区污染物的主要来源。在枯水期,河网区污染物的外源输入主要由河网污染负荷贡献;入河口通量是河口区TN、TP的主要来源,而河口区的CBOD主要来自河口污染负荷。丰水期的污染物上游通量、入河口通量分别是枯水期的8.0~20.2、15.1~21.5倍,同时,丰水期输入南海的污染物通量(入海通量)是枯水期的6.4~9.1倍。污染物主要经东四口门输入河口区,就各口门而言,虎门、磨刀门和蕉门是最主要的输入口门。总体上,河网和河口区对于CBOD、TN、TP均表现出"汇"的作用。     

基于源分离的农村分散式生活污水处理技术

与城市集中式生活污水处理相比,农村分散式生活污水处理可以采用源分离技术与污水资源回收处理技术相结合的模式,从而有效回收污水中的营养盐、减少排放到环境中的污染物、提高水的循环利用效率。本文提出了三种源分离生活污水,包括尿液,灰水(洗浴、洗衣水等)和粪便。尿液不到家庭废水总量的1%,却含有50%～80%的氮、磷和钾等营养盐以及大部分药物和激素。粪便含有较高的有机物、固体和病原菌,并携带剩余的药物/激素残留物。灰水量最大,但是在三类污水中其营养盐、病原菌的含量最低,但含有洗涤剂和个人护理产品等污染物。提出了两种模式的生活污水源分离及污水处理技术。尿液的最佳处理技术是用鸟粪石沉淀法回收磷,用氨汽提法回收氨氮。黑水的最佳处理方法是厌氧消化;灰水的最佳处理方法是人工湿地和BAF、MBR等好氧生物处理技术。     

The potential of nutrient reuse from a source-separated domestic wastewater system in Indonesia--case study: ecological sanitation pilot plant in Surabaya.

Human excreta (faeces and urine) contribute only a small volume in domestic wastewater but are one of the main causes of water pollution. On the other hand, they contain very valuable nutrients to be reused as anthropogenic fertiliser through proper collection, treatment and hygienisation processes. To know the potential of nutrient recovery and reuse in Indonesia, a pilot scale source separation domestic wastewater system has been built in Surabaya and, so far, has shown promising results. Using urine diverting toilets, up to 86% nitrogen, 21% phosphorus and 69% potassium from urine and 12% of nitrogen, 68% of phosphorus and 20% of potassium from the faecal matter can be recovered. The separated urine was stored for 6 months before usage as fertiliser for hygienic reasons, while the separated faecal matter was composted with worms (vermicomposting). In order to investigate the fertilising effect, a preliminary cultivation experiment has been carried out on young rose plants using different fertilisers for 2 months.     

珠江三角洲河网与河口区CBOD、TN和TP通量模拟

基于一维河网与三维河口耦合水质模型,计算1998年6月（丰水期）、1999年1月（枯水期）珠江三角洲河网与河口区的碳质生化需氧量（CBOD）、总氮（TN）和总磷（TP）通量。结果表明,河网和河口区的污染物通量呈现非常明显的季节变化。在丰水期,河网区污染物的外源输入主要由上游输入的污染物通量（上游通量）贡献;经八大口门输入河口区的污染物通量（入河口通量）是河口区污染物的主要来源。在枯水期,河网区污染物的外源输入主要由河网污染负荷贡献;入河口通量是河口区TN、TP的主要来源,而河口区的CBOD主要来自河口污染负荷。丰水期的污染物上游通量、入河口通量分别是枯水期的8.0~20.2、15.1~21.5倍,同时,丰水期输入南海的污染物通量（入海通量）是枯水期的6.4~9.1倍。污染物主要经东四口门输入河口区,就各口门而言,虎门、磨刀门和蕉门是最主要的输入口门。总体上,河网和河口区对于CBOD、TN、TP均表现出“汇”的作用。     

Occurrence of micro-organic pollutants on phosphorus recovery from urine

Increased population growth and food prices have resulted in more demand for fertilizers, especially phosphorus (P), to be used in agriculture and production of food crops. Phosphorus is one of the important natural resources and will be exhausted in the near future. Nowadays, struvite production is a good method to recover P from urine. However, the natural urines contain high amounts of micro-organic pollutants which may cause health risks. Therefore, in this contribution, we investigated the amount of micro-organic pollutants in struvite from urine. There are various kinds of pharmaceuticals and hormones which are used in the world. Nevertheless, we focused on 10 pharmaceuticals (amoxycillin, carbamazepine, erythromycin, furosemide, atenolol, ibuprofen, norfloxacin, trimethoprim, tetracycline, and acetylsalicylic acid) and one hormone (17β-estradiol) as representatives. The experiments were carried out with synthetic and natural urines. After the production of struvite, the results from synthetic and natural urine samples showed that only tetracycline, erythromycin, and norfloxacin remained in the struvite, and, especially, tetracycline remained in struvite with quite a high amount.     

Estimating Sediment Loadings in the South Saskatchewan River Catchment

Water Resources Management - In river catchments, sediment fluxes facilitate the transport of nutrients and pollutants and reduce water quality, potentially impacting water body health and altering...     

Reducing micropollutants with source control: substance flow analysis of 212 pharmaceuticals in faeces and urine.

Pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment are raising concern. It is expected that many anthropogenic pharmaceuticals are largely excreted via urine; a popular argument for introducing urine source separation. However, to date, this assumption lacks verification. We close this gap with quantitative screening of official pharmaceutical data. We analysed the excretion pathways of 212 pharmaceuticals' active ingredients (AI), equalling 1,409 products. On average, 64% (+/-27%) of each AI was excreted via urine, and 35% (+/-26%) via faeces. In urine, 42% (+/-28%) of each AI was excreted as metabolites. However, these numbers need cautious interpretation. We found an extreme variability (1) between different therapeutic groups, (2) within some groups and (3) sometimes even between products of the same AI. We discuss various therapeutic groups and include Swiss sales' quantities. For instance, urine source separation could very effectively remove the highly sold and non-degradable x-ray contrast media: 94% (+/-4%) are excreted via urine. However, for different pharmaceuticals belonging to cytostatics, excretion via urine was 6-98%. Because of such large variability we advise caution to introduce the still imperfect urine separation technology solely because of pharmaceuticals. Nonetheless, together with other good arguments for this innovation, removal of pharmaceuticals is a welcome side effect.     

Investigation of heavy metals transportation from soil to the pine tree.

The Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is the most common tree in Lithuanian forests. Research on the impact of pollutants on pines allows us to evaluate pollutants in a major part of Lithuanian forests. Heavy metals (HMs) are among the major pollutants entering forest ecosystems in different ways: in their wet and dry form they come from local or distant sources of emission by being transported from seas alongside with nutrients and sea salt, washed up from the dead plants accumulated in soil, and together with mineral particles brought by wind or water. During the period of investigation, a decrease in the Cr concentration in pine rings is seen. High Zn concentrations (in 1987--1989 Zn concentration was 27.6 mg x kg(-1)) in the pine may be caused by emissions from heavy traffic. The results have shown that Mn has the highest concentration as compared with that of other HMs in the soil around the pine (at the depth of 30-40 cm, Mn concentration is 780 mg x kg(-1)). In comparison with other HMs, Cu and Zn have the largest factor of transport from the soil to the wood (0.39 and 0.49 respectively).     

潮汐作用对河网区重金属输移的影响

根据相关文献,推导了只考虑溶解态和悬浮态输移过程的一维河流重金属输移模型的表达式。根据2005年12月北江镉污染事故背景资料,对该模型的参数进行率定,以分析珠江流域西、北江河网区潮汐对重金属输移的影响。设定北江上游突发污染事故与下游大、中、小潮相遭遇的情景,将情景资料代入重金属输移模型进行模拟,根据模拟结果评价了事故对佛山市水厂供水带来的影响。分析结果发现,潮汐作用造成河流内水流往复震荡,对污染物的迁移过程影响较大;不同的潮汐作用导致西江、北江的水流补给形式发生变化,进而影响污染物的传播途径;污染事故与大潮相遭遇时,对供水造成的危害要远大于与中、小潮相遭遇时。     

Odour abatement in the integrated reactor concept for simultaneous treatment of liquid and solid pig manure fractions.

New technologies are needed for manure treatment that can capture nutrients, reduce emissions of ammonia and nuisance odours, and kill harmful pathogens. A reactor concept was developed for simultaneous treatment of separately collected liquid and solid fractions of pig manure. The liquid fraction is concentrated by evaporating the water using energy from the composting system and at the same time scrubbing ammonia from the composting off-gas by acidifying the urine to pH 4 with nitric acid. This results in two marketable products, a concentrated liquid nitrogen fertiliser (NH4NO3) without phosphorus, and a stabilised, solid organic fertiliser, which is free of pathogens and weeds. By connecting the two reactor systems, emissions of ammonia and odours are abated as ammonia emitted from the composting is trapped in the liquid fraction and odorous compounds emitted from the liquid are degraded in the composting reactor. The concept was physically simulated by coupling a 80-L compost reactor to a 10-L bubble column. Operation of the bench-scale system showed that the concept is very promising. All nutrients were captured, and emissions of ammonia and odours were almost completely abated.     

Performance of UASB septic tank for treatment of concentrated black water within DESAR concept.

Separation of wastewater streams produced in households according to their origin, degree of pollution and affinity to a specific treatment constitutes a starting point in the DESAR concept (decentralised sanitation and reuse). Concentrated black water and kitchen waste carry the highest load of organic matter and nutrients from all waste(water)streams generated from different human activities. Anaerobic digestion of concentrated black water is a core technology in the DESAR concept. The applicability of the UASB septic tank for treatment of concentrated black water was investigated under two different temperatures, 15 and 25 degrees C. The removal of total COD was dependent on the operational temperature and attained 61 and 74% respectively. A high removal of the suspended COD of 88 and 94% respectively was measured. Effluent nutrients were mainly in the soluble form. Precipitation of phosphate was observed. Effective sludge/water separation, long HRT and higher operational temperature contributed to a reduction of E. coli. Based on standards there is little risk of contamination with heavy metals when treated effluent is to be applied in agriculture as fertiliser.     

白洋淀水体氮、磷和重金属的变化特征及影响因素

为了探讨白洋淀水体污染的变化特征和来源,利用多元统计方法对白洋淀湖水中离子、营养盐（氮、磷）和重金属（Cd、Cr、Cu、Ni、Pb及Zn）进行研究,分析其时空变化,并揭示其影响因素和主要来源。结果表明：白洋淀湖水水化学类型包括HCO₃-Ca·Mg和SO₄·Cl-Ca·Mg,湖水总氮、Cd、Cr、Cu、Pb及Zn的平均值均高于V类水质限值。近20年来湖水总氮和总磷的平均值均呈现波动性下降,而两者无明显相关性,主要受气候和人类活动的共同影响。在空间上,淀内湖水营养盐和重金属表现出西部地区高、东南地区低的特征,多元统计分析进一步证实流域府河携带的污染物质是白洋淀水体氮、磷和重金属的主要来源,也是影响其空间变化的主要因素,但淀内不同地区的人类活动对湖水中N、P、Pb及Cr的影响也不可忽视。     

STUDY ON SORPTION OF HEAVY METAL POLLUTANTS BY SEDIMENT PARTICLES

Sorption of heavy metal on sediment particles is studied theoretically am experimentally. Sorption processes of heavy metal pollutants on sediment particles can b well described by Langmuir model. Parameters in the model b,,k and k1 depend on proper ties of sediment and water, and have nothing to do with sediment concentration. By com bining the sorption dynamic equation and the mass conservation equation, the variation c N(sorption content of heavy metal pollutant by specific weight of sediment) and c (con centration of heavy metal pollutant in water phase) with time can be deduced. Further more, formulas for calculating the equilibrium sorption content N and the equilibriur concentration of heavy metal pollutant in water phase c are established too. Experimenta data well coincide with theoretical formulas. These can be treated as the basis for furthe quantitative study of sediment sorption-desorption characteristics.     

Treatment of source-separated urine by a combination of bipolar electrodialysis and a gas transfer membrane.

Urine contains nutrients which can be applied usefully as a fertiliser in agriculture, but the relatively high pH can lead to ammonia evaporation. Electrodialysis with bipolar membranes was combined with an additional mass transfer unit in order to render a product containing ammonium and phosphate at a low pH. In one case, the additional mass transfer unit consisted of bubble columns placed in acid and basic concentrate streams, connected with a circulating gas phase. In the other case, the unit consisted of a gas-filled (hydrophobic) membrane placed in between the circulating acid and basic concentrate streams. The results showed that ammonia was transferred through the gas phase, but also carbonate, which is present in stored urine originating from the hydrolysis of urea. Although the pH in the product stream decreases initially, it rises above pH 7 at longer operation times. This pH increase can be attributed to a combination of proton compensating effects. The use of ammonia-selective membranes for the transfer into the acid concentrate could provide a solution to generate an ammonium phosphate product at low pH and high recoveries.     

What is the potential for utilizing the resources in sludge?

The successful strategy for water protection by biological wastewater treatment results in a sludge production of about 20 to 40 kg dry matter per population equivalent and year. In the context of regional material fluxes, sewage sludge has a low resource potential and a low pollution potential despite the fact that it can be characterised as a sink, concentrating wastewater compounds. The mass flow of nutrients (N, P) in the sewage sludge is comparatively small as compared to the losses of nutrients in agriculture. The most valuable element in the sludge is phosphorus, as the availability of phosphorus for the production of low-cost mineral fertiliser is limited. The most economical means of P-recycling is agricultural sludge application, which can also be seen as the option with the lowest loss of all valuable compounds of the sludge, and the lowest increase of entropy. The reliability of this disposal route for the treatment plant operator depends on several major pre-requisites: * reliability in regard to hygiene * reliability in regard to long-term soil protection public acceptance (politicians, media) * acceptance by all parties involved in sludge application and its consequences (farmers, farmer unions, land owners, food industry, food trade, retailers, consumers, consumer associations, NGOs, etc.) Only the first two prerequisites can be based on scientific research and risk assessment. As a consequence, only for these two aspects can quality criteria and adequate procedures be developed and introduced into a legal framework and quality assurance procedures. The latter two pre-requisites must be addressed in terms of sociology, psychology and political science and have a strong educational aspect.     

基于改进模型的辽东湾东岸营口海域海底地下水排泄量计算

海底地下水排泄(SGD)是全球水循环的重要组成部分,也是向海洋输送营养盐等各类化学物质的必要途径之一。以辽东湾东部营口海域为研究对象,以天然镭同位素(²²⁴Ra、²²⁸Ra)作为示踪剂,建立镭质量平衡模型并加以改进,进而探讨再循环海水(RSGD)对研究区内水体刷新时间、SGD及携带氮磷营养盐通量的影响程度。结果表明:利用镭质量平衡模型计算水体刷新时间为9 d,改进后的镭质量平衡模型计算出的水体刷新时间为14.35~18.11 d;传统模型下SGD通量为(3.01~3.51)×10⁸ m³/d。改进模型评估的SGD通量为(3.55~4.39)×10⁸ m³/d,改进模型评估的水体刷新时间与SGD均明显高于初始模型,其中水体刷新时间增加了59.44%~101.22%;SGD通量增加了17.94%~25.07%。在此基础上,地下水向海输入的氮、磷营养盐通量在考虑RSGD的情况下分别为1.73×10⁸、1.52×10⁹ mol/d。研究结果证明了RSGD对SGD和营养盐通量存在较大影响,为营口海域生态环境评估提供了基础数据。     

Nitrogen recovery by urea hydrolysis and struvite precipitation from anthropogenic urine.

Human urine is a source of nutrients and has a significant potential for recycle of nitrogen. Recently, much research focused on separate collection and treatment of human urine. Recovery of nutrients from human urine requires hydrolysis of urea into ammonia and subsequent removal of ammonia and sometimes phosphorus. This study attempted to evaluate urea hydrolysis of human urine in both untreated fresh samples and urease added urine samples. Recovery of nutrients by struvite precipitation on pre-hydrolysed samples was also assessed on undiluted and 1:1 diluted samples. Results of urea hydrolysis on untreated urine samples indicated that the process was slow and pH exerted a significant effect on the process. No hydrolysis occurred above pH 10. From pH 2 to 7.5, 25% of urea could be hydrolysed in 30 d. Urease added hydrolysis with the enzyme doses 25-49 mg L(-1) was a rapid process providing complete conversion into ammonia in 1.5 h. Struvite precipitation conducted on enzyme hydrolysed urine sample proved to be an efficient process and ammonia removals up to 95% were obtained. Struvite precipitation also provided 50% organic nitrogen removal.     

Tracking pollution and its sources in the catchment‐lake system of major waterbodies in Kazakhstan

The objective of the present study was to identify the sources and routes of entry of heavy metals and nutrients into several large waterbodies in the arid zone of Kazakhstan, namely Lake Balkhash and Samarkan and Shardara reservoirs. A data visualization method was used for this purpose. Statistical mapping, based on referencing coordinates of the material selection points, was performed with the Statistics 12.0 program. Matching statistical maps with the waterbody contours was performed in Adobe Photoshop. Maps of the spatial distribution of heavy metals (cadmium, nickel, cobalt, lead, zinc and copper) and nutrients were constructed for all three study waterbodies. Data visualization clearly illustrated the relationship between the distribution of pollutants in the study waterbodies, as well as the sources of anthropogenic pollution. Based on the mapping exercise, it was established that Cu and Zn entered the waterbodies mainly in agricultural waste waters, while Cd, Ni, Co, Pb and partly Zn entered the waterbodies mainly in industrial and surface run‐off. Nutrients enter the waterbodies mainly in river and municipal waters. The constructed maps demonstrate the role of the constant flow in the distribution of pollutants in the waters of Lake Balkhash. The results also indicate that statistical mapping is an effective tool for identifying the sources and routes of pollutant entry into waterbodies. The imposition of statistical maps on the contours of waterbodies of concern provides a mapping method allowing for more visually compelling data and information for a wide circle of users and managers.     

The role of groundwater in loading of nutrients to a restricted bay in a Precambrian Shield lake Part 2. – Numerical modeling

Previous modeling of hydrologic and nutrient budgets of lakes in Precambrian Shield regions have generally ignored groundwater as a source of water and supplier or sink of nutrients. This paper and its companion (Part 1) address this science gap by probing the role of groundwater in the nutrient balance for a restricted bay of a Precambrian Shield lake (Lake of the Woods) that experienced extensive shoreline development in the 1990s. Based on field data (Part 1), we applied a 3D reactive transport model (FEFLOW) to simulate the fate of nutrients in a cottage septic plume in groundwater and seepage into the bay. Corresponding simulations are for chloride and septic tracers in the plume, and 1D modeling of the mass balance of one septic tracer (acesulfame) in the bay. Our results suggest that, before they reach the lake, significant portions of the septic plume contaminants are attenuated by various processes, including uptake by transpiring plants. Extrapolating, we estimate that, for annual fluxes to the bay, groundwater seepage contributes ~1–3% of the phosphorus (P) and ~2–5% of the dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN). The results suggest that these groundwater nutrient fluxes to the bay are derived mainly from natural background sources. In contrast, cottage septic plumes contribute a quarter of the groundwater flux of DIN to Poplar Bay, while the septic contribution of P to the bay is negligible. We estimate that the largest sources of P and DIN fluxes to Poplar Bay are influx from the open lake and atmospheric deposition.