Synthesis and characterization of polyaniline–organoclay nanocomposites

Polyaniline (PANI)–organoclay nanocomposites were prepared. Intercalation of aniline monomer into montmorillonite (MMT) modified by polyoxyalkylene was followed by subsequent oxidative polymerization of the aniline in the interlayer spacing. The organoclay was prepared by cation exchange process between sodium cation in MMT and onium ion in four different types of polyoxyalkylene diamine and triamine with different molecular weight. Infrared spectra confirm the electrostatic interaction between the positively charged onium group (NH₃⁺) and the negatively charged surface of MMT. X‐ray diffraction analysis provides a structural information. The absence of d₀₀₁ diffraction band in the nanocomposites was observed at certain types and contents of organoclay. Scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy were employed to determine the dispersion of the clay into PANI. The thermal degradation behavior of PANI in the nanocomposites has been investigated by thermogravimetric analysis. The weight loss suggests that the PANI chains in the nanocomposites are more thermally stable than pristine PANI. This improvement is attributed to the presence of nanolayers with high aspect ratio acting as barriers, thus shielding the diffusion of degraded PANI from the nanocomposites. The electrical conductivity of the nanocomposites was increased 30 times more than that of pure MMT at a certain concentration. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2008     

Polyaniline–organoclay nanocomposites as curing agent for epoxy: Preparation and characterization

Polyaniline (PANI)–organoclay/Epoxy (EP) nanocomposites were prepared. PANI–organoclay nanocomposites were used as curing agent for EP. Organoclay was prepared by an ion exchange process between sodium cations in MMT and NH₃⁺ groups in polyoxypropylene (D₂₃₀). PANI–organoclay nanocomposite was synthesized by in situ polymerization of aniline in (14 wt%) organoclay. Infrared spectra and differential scanning calorimetry confirm the curing of EP. The absence of d₀₀₁ diffraction band of organoclay in the nanocomposites was observed by X‐ray diffraction. The structure argument was further supported by scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Electrical conductivity of the nanocomposites within the range 2.1 × 10⁻⁷–3.2 × 10⁻⁷ S/cm depending on the concentration of the PANI/D₂₃₀‐MMT. POLYM. COMPOS., 2009. © 2008 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Synthesis and antimicrobial activity of the Schiff base from polyoxyalkylene‐montmorillonite nanocomposites and aldehydes

Vanillin (4‐hydroxy‐3‐methoxy benzaldehyde) and 5‐formylamino salicylic acid microbicides were reacted with polyoxyalkylene‐montmorillonite (D_230–2000‐MMT) nanocomposites. The microstructure of these Schiff base nanocomposites was characterized by TEM and XRD. D_230–2000‐MMT nanocomposites were prepared by an ion exchange process of sodium montmorillonite (Na‐MMT) and NH₃ ⁺ groups in polyoxyalkylene amine hydrochloride with three different molecular masses of D₂₃₀, D₄₀₀, and D₂₀₀₀. Wide‐angle X‐ray diffraction confirms the intercalation of the polymer between the silicate layers. Electrostatic interaction between the positively charged NH₃ ⁺ groups and the negatively charged surface of MMT was observed. The nanocomposites were tested for antimicrobial activity against the Gram‐negative bacteria (Escherichia coli NCIM 2065), Gram‐positive bacteria (Bacillus subtillus ATCC), and fungi (Candida albicans SC5314 and Cryptococcus neoformans). The D₂₀₀₀‐MMT/vanillin Schiff base nanocomposite strongly inhibited the growth of all microorganisms that can be used in different applications. The amount of loaded polymer and the structure of the nanocomposite play an important role in inhibiting the bacterial and fungal strains. It is found that the Schiff base nanocomposite affect the morphology, oxygen consumption, and the release of cytoplasmic constituents such as potassium (K⁺), sodium (Na⁺), and calcium (Ca²⁺) ions leading to death of the cells. POLYM. COMPOS., 2012. © 2012 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Synthesis and properties of BCDA‐based polyimide–clay nanocomposites

Bicyclo[2.2.2]oct‐7‐ene‐2,3,5,6‐tetracarboxylic dianhydride (BCDA)‐based polyimide–clay nanocomposites were prepared from their precursor, namely polyamic acid, by a solution‐casting method. The organoclay was prepared by treating sodium montmorillonite (Kunipia F) clay with dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide at 80 °C. Polyamic acid solutions containing various weight percentages of organoclay were prepared from 4,4′‐(4,4′‐isopropylidenediphenyl‐1,1′‐diyldioxy)‐dianiline and BCDA in N‐methyl‐2‐pyrrolidone containing dispersed particles of organoclay at 20 °C. These solutions were cast on a glass plate using a Doctor's blade and then heated subsequently to obtain nanocomposite films. The nanocomposites were characterized using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, thermal mechanical analysis, dynamic mechanical analysis, polarizing microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, wide‐angle X‐ray diffraction (WAXD) and thermogravimetric analysis. The glass transition temperature of the nanocomposites was found to be higher than that of pristine polymer. The coefficient of thermal expansion of the nanocomposites decreased with increasing organoclay content. WAXD studies indicated that the extent of silicate layer separation in the nanocomposite films depended upon the organoclay content. Tensile strength and modulus of the nanocomposite containing 1% organoclay were significantly higher when compared to pristine polymer and other nanocomposites. The thermal stability of the nanocomposites was found to be higher than that of pristine polymer in air and nitrogen atmosphere. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

Rheological behavior of polypropylene/layered silicate nanocomposites prepared by melt compounding in shear and elongational flows

Melt rheology and processability of exfoliated polypropylene (PP)/layered silicate nanocomposites were investigated. The nanocomposites were prepared by melt compounding process in the presence or absence of a PP‐based maleic anhydride compatibilizer. PP/layered silicate nanocomposites showed typical rheological properties of exfoliated nanocomposites such as nonterminal solid‐like plateau behavior at low frequency region in oscillatory shear flow, higher steady shear viscosity at low shear rate region, and outstanding strain hardening behavior in uniaxial elongational flow. The melt processability of exfoliated PP/layered silicate nanocomposites was significantly improved due to good dispersion of layered silicates and increased molecular interaction between the PP matrix and the layered silicate organoclay. Small‐angle X‐ray scattering and transmission electron microscopy results revealed that the layered silicate organoclay was exfoliated and good interaction between PP matrix and organoclay was achieved by using the PP‐g‐MAH compatibilizer. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 103: 3506–3515, 2007     

Effect of organoclays on the properties of polyurethane/clay nanocomposite coatings

Linear, one‐binding‐site or two‐binding‐site (N⁺) organifiers with two hydroxyl end groups were synthesized, and novel organoclays were prepared through a cation‐exchange reaction between pristine sodium montmorillonite and the synthesized organifiers. After sonication of the as‐prepared organoclay in N,N′‐dimethylformamide for 10 min, the average size of the clay decreased to about 1 μm. The X‐ray diffraction patterns confirmed that the d‐spacing of the silicate layers of the organoclay expanded from 1.1 to about 1.9 nm and the peak intensity decreased with the molecular weight of the organifier increasing. Polyurethane/clay nanocomposites were synthesized by a one‐shot polymerization method. Both intercalated and exfoliated structures of the layered silicates in the polyurethane matrix were observed from transmission electron microscopy micrographs, and the d‐spacing ranged from 4 to 10 nm. The thermal and mechanical properties of the nanocomposite were enhanced by the introduction of the organoclay into the polyurethane matrix. An approximately 40–46°C increase in the onset decomposition temperature, a 200% increase in the tensile strength with a 0.5 wt % clay loading, and a 49% increase in Young's modulus with a 3 wt % clay loading were achieved. The effects of the molecular weight and the number of binding sites of the organifier on the properties of the nanocomposites were also evaluated. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010     

Synthesis and characterization of polyester-based nanocomposites coatings for automotive pre-coated metal

Polyester-based nanocomposites coatings were synthesized by the in situ polymerization with high speed homogenizer process at the various contents of organic modified montmorillonite (OMMT) to disperse into the polyester matrix. The dispersion state of organoclay was examined by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The absence of reflection pattern of organoclay and TEM study revealed that organoclay was partially intercalated and exfoliated into the polymer matrix. Mechanical property of polyester-based nanocomposites coatings (PE/OMMT) improved the tensile strength and good formability at the deep drawing test. The viscoelastic behavior of PE/OMMT nanocomposites coatings was observed by dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). When the content of organoclay was increased, the stiffness of the PE/OMMT nanocomposites coatings increased considerably and T_g of each cured coatings shifted to a lower temperature. Anti-corrosion property was examined by the salt spray test. CNC-3 had little rust after 600 h and it implies that nano-sized layered silicate of organoclay effectively increases the length of the diffusion pathways water molecules. And nano-sized layered silicate of organoclay might be decreased the permeability and could make higher corrosion resistance of PE/OMMT nanocomposites coatings. From those results, CNC-3 had good formability in the deep drawing and also had good anti-corrosion property. So, CNC-3 would be an appropriate coating for automotive pre-coated metal.     

Synthesis and properties of poly(methyl methacrylate)/montmorillonite (PMMA/MMT) nanocomposites

PMMA/MMT nanocomposites were successfully synthesized via in situ intercalative polymerization, and characterized by means of wide‐angle X‐ray diffractometry, transmission electron microscopy, thermal gravimetric analysis, dynamic mechanical analysis and Fourier‐transform infrared analysis. The nanocomposites possess partially exfoliated and partially intercalated structure, in which the silicate layers are exfoliated into nanometre secondary particles with thickness of less than 20 nm and uniformly dispersed in the polymer matrix. In comparison with pure PMMA, the thermal stability, glass transition temperature, and mechanical properties of the polymer are notably improved by the presence of the nanometric silicate layers. It was found that part of the PMMA chains in the nanocomposites are well immobilized inside and/or onto the layered silicates and, therefore, the unique properties of the nanocomposites result from the strong interactions between the nanometric silicate layers and the polymer chains. Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry     

Nanostructure of EVA/organoclay nanocomposites: Effects of kinds of organoclays and grafting of maleic anhydride onto EVA

Nanostructure of poly(ethylene‐co‐vinyl acetate)/organically modified montmorillonite (MMT; EVA/organoclay) nanocomposites prepared by melt intercalation process was investigated using X‐ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Three kinds of organoclays were used to see their influences on the nanostructure of the EVA hybrids. The effects of the polar interactions between the polymer and the silicate layers of organoclays were also investigated by grafting maleic anhydride onto EVA. It was found that the strong polar interactions between the polymer and the silicate layers of organoclays are critical to the formation of polymer‐layered silicate nanocomposites. The results also showed that increasing the mixing temperature was unfavorable to improve the dispersion of organoclays in the EVA matrix. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 87: 1901–1909, 2003     

CO2 sorption and diffusion in polymethyl methacrylate–clay nanocomposites

This study reports the glass transition temperature (T_g), and sorption and diffusion of subcritical CO₂ gas in polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) nanocomposites containing organically modified smectite clay, Cloisite 20A (C20A). A range of methods for preparing the PMMA‐clay nanocomposites was investigated and a solution coprecipitation method was selected as the most appropriate. Using this method, PMMA nanocomposite containing 2, 4, 6, and 10 wt% nanoclay loadings were prepared. Wide‐angle X‐ray diffraction (XRD) analysis and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) indicated that the 2 wt% nanocomposite materials had a well‐dispersed intercalated clay structure. The T_g for PMMA‐C20A nanocomposites, as measured by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), was found to be independent of the clay loading. CO₂ solubility studies from 0 to 65°C and pressures up to 5.5 MPa using an in situ gravimetric technique were performed on compression‐molded films. The organoclay was found to have no effect on the solubility of CO₂ in PMMA, and therefore the solubility of CO₂ in the nanocomposite can be determined from the solubility of CO₂ in the matrix polymer alone. Diffusion coefficients were determined using the appropriate transport models for these test conditions and the diffusion coefficients for CO₂ in PMMA‐C20A composites were found to increase with organoclay loading. It is believed that the processing path taken to prepare the nanocomposites may have resulted in the agglomeration of the C20A organoclay, thereby preventing the polymer chains from fully wetting and intercalating a large number of clay particles. These agglomerations are responsible for the formation of large‐scale holes within the glassy nanocomposite, which behave as low resistance pathways for gas transport within the PMMA matrix. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 45:904–914, 2005. © 2005 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Synthesis and characterization of in situ polymerized segmented thermoplastic elastomeric polyurethane/layered silicate clay nanocomposites

Nanocomposites based on thermoplastic elastomeric polyurethane (TPU) and layered silicate clay were prepared by in situ synthesis. The properties of nanocomposites of TPU with unmodified clay were compared with that of organically modified clay. The nanocomposites of the TPU and organomodified clay showed better dispersion and exhibited superior properties. Exfoliation of the clay layers was observed at low organoclay contents, whereas an intercalated morphology was observed at higher clay contents. As one of major purposes of this study, the effect of the silicate layers in the nanocomposites on the order–disorder transition temperature (T_ODT) of the TPU was evaluated from the intensity change of the hydrogen‐bonded and free carbonyl stretching peaks and from the peak position change of the N? H bending peak. The presence of the organoclay increased T_ODT by approximately 10°C, which indicated improved stability in the phase‐separated domain structure. The layered silicate clay caused a tremendous improvement in the stiffness of the TPU; meanwhile, a reduction in the ultimate elongation was observed. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 102: 3048–3055, 2006     

Synthesis and antimicrobial activity of biocidal polymer–montmorillonite nanocomposites

The bioactive agents p‐hydroxymethylbenzoate, 2,4‐dihydroxymethylbenzoate and methylsalicylate were reacted with polyoxyalkylene (D_230–2000)–montmorillonite (MMT) intercalated nanocomposites. D_230–2000–MMT were prepared by an ion exchange process of Na‐MMT and? NH₃⁺ groups in polyoxyalkylene amine hydrochloride of three different molecular masses (D₂₃₀, D₄₀₀ and D₂₀₀₀). The results of X‐ray analysis and transmission electron microscopy show that D₂₀₀₀–MMT/p‐hydroxymethylbenzoate is an exfoliated nanocomposite, whereas in D₂₃₀–MMT/p‐hydroxymethylbenzoate, D₂₃₀–MMT/2,4‐dihydroxymethylbenzoate, D₂₃₀–MMT/methylsalicylate and D₄₀₀–MMT/p‐hydroxymethylbenzoate, having lower molecular mass and polymer loading, the MMT rearranges in an intercalated and flocculated structure. The amount of intercalated polymer and interaction between polymer and layered silicate were determined using thermogravimetric analysis and Infrared spectroscopy. The antimicrobial activities of the nanocomposites were qualitatively and quantitatively assessed by agar diffusion tests and minimal inhibitory concentration values against a Gram‐negative bacterium (Escherichia coli NCIM 2065), a Gram‐positive bacterium (Bacillus subtilis ATCC) and fungi (Candida albicans SC5314 and Cryptococcus neoformans). The D₂₀₀₀–MMT/p‐hydroxymethylbenzoate nanocomposite strongly inhibits the growth of all the micro‐organisms tested. The diameter of the inhibition zone varies according to the type of micro‐organism tested. The effect of nanocomposite concentration on morphology, respiration and release of calcium, potassium and sodium ions of the test micro‐organisms was examined. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Influence of supercritical CO2 on the interactions between maleated polypropylene and alkyl‐ammonium organoclay

Supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO₂) has been proposed as an effective exfoliating agent for the preparation of polymer‐layered silicate nanocomposites, though there is limited fundamental understanding of this mechanism. This study looks at the interactions of this unique green solvent with three maleated polypropylenes of varying anhydride content and molecular size with an alkyl‐ammonium organoclay. Mixtures of compatibilizers and organoclay were melt‐annealed in a high pressure batch vessel at 200°C and subjected to either a blanket of nitrogen or scCO₂ at a pressure of 9.7 MPa. The structures and properties of these melt‐annealed mixtures were characterized by X‐ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, and contact angle measurement. The results indicate that the plasticizing influence of scCO₂ aided intercalation and exfoliation for intercalants of moderate molecular size and anhydride content which would otherwise have limited diffusion into the clay galleries. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011     

Investigation on the Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Intercalated Epoxy/Layered Silicate Nanocomposites

Epoxy resin/layered silicate nanocomposites with various clay contents were prepared. The structural studies showed the intercalation of epoxy polymer chains into the clay galleries. The adhesion analysis of nanocomposite coating films on metallic substrates showed the excellent adhesion of epoxy-based nanocomposite coatings on iron plates, especially in lower clay loadings. According to the hardness test results, the organoclay minerals caused the increasing of the hardness of epoxy nanocomposites. The thermal properties of nanocomposites were evaluated by means of DSC and TGA analysis. The tensile and compression strengths of cured epoxy/clay systems were also investigated.     

Poly(vinyl alcohol) nanocomposites with different clays: Pristine clays and organoclays

Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA)/clay nanocomposites were synthesized using the solution intercalation method. Na ion‐exchanged clays [Na⁺–saponite (SPT) and Na⁺–montmorillonite (MMT)] and alkyl ammonium ion‐exchanged clays (C₁₂–MMT and C₁₂OOH–MMT) were used for the PVA nanocomposites. From the morphological studies, the Na ion‐exchanged clay is more easily dispersed in a PVA matrix than is the alkyl ammonium ion‐exchanged clay. Attempts were also made to improve both the thermal stabilities and the tensile properties of PVA/clay nanocomposite films, and it was found that the addition of only a small amount of clay was sufficient for that purpose. Both the ultimate tensile strength and the initial modulus for the nanocomposites increased gradually with clay loading up to 8 wt %. In C₁₂OOH–MMT, the maximum enhancement of the ultimate tensile strength and the initial modulus for the nanocomposites was observed for blends containing 6 wt % organoclay. Na ion‐exchanged clays have higher tensile strengths than those of organic alkyl‐exchanged clays in PVA nanocomposites films. On the other hand, organic alkyl‐exchanged clays have initial moduli that are better than those of Na ion‐exchanged clays. Overall, the content of clay particles in the polymer matrix affect both the thermal stability and the tensile properties of the polymer/clay nanocomposites. However, a change in thermal stability with clay was not significant. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 90: 3208–3214, 2003     

Preparation and characterization of transparent poly(methyl methacrylate)/Na+‐MMT nanocomposite films by solution casting

Films of poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)/sodium montmorillonite (Na⁺‐MMT) nanocomposites have been successfully prepared utilizing Na⁺‐MMT by N,N‐dimethylformamide solution casting. The nanocomposite films show high transparency, enhanced thermal resistance, and mechanical properties in comparison with the neat polymer film. The transparency of the films was investigated by UV‐vis spectra. The exfoliated dispersion of Na⁺‐MMT platelets in nanocomposites were investigated by X‐ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. The enhanced thermal resistance and mechanical properties of PMMA were studied by thermal gravimetric analysis and dynamic mechanical analysis, respectively. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010     

High performance nanocomposites of polyurethane elastomer and organically modified layered silicate

High performance nanocomposites comprising a polyurethane elastomer (PUE) and an organically modified layered silicate are prepared. These nanocomposites are based on poly(propylene glycol), 4,4′‐methylene bis(cyclohexyl isocyanate), 1,4‐butandiol, and organoclay. The tensile strength and strain at break for these novel PUE nanocomposites increases more than 150%, but the hardness remains unchanged. The fatigue properties are significantly improved. With 3 wt % organoclay, the fatigue properties are improved the most, which is important for the PU industry. The effects of the isocyanate index on the mechanical properties of the PUE nanocomposites are investigated. It is found that an isoyanate index of 1.10 results in the best improvement in stress and elongation at break. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 90: 3239–3243, 2003     

Effect of organoclay structure on morphology and properties of nanocomposites based on an amorphous polyamide

An amorphous polyamide (a-PA) and three organoclays, M₃(HT)₁, M₂(HT)₂ and (HE)₂M₁T₁, were melt processed to explore the effect of the organoclay structure on the extent of exfoliation and properties of these nanocomposites. Wide angle X-ray scattering, transmission electron microscopy, and stress-strain behavior were used to determine the degree of exfoliation of the nanocomposites. For quantitative assessment of the structure of the nanocomposites, a detailed particle analysis was made to provide various averages of the clay dimensions and aspect ratio. The results evaluated from different methods were generally consistent with each other. Nanocomposites based on the organoclays with one alkyl tail and hydroxyl ethyl groups gave well-exfoliated structures and high matrix reinforcement while nanocomposites from two-tailed organoclay contain a considerable concentration of intercalated stacks. Nanocomposites from the organoclays with one alkyl tail showed slightly better exfoliation and matrix reinforcement than those from the organoclays with hydroxyl ethyl groups. The organoclay structure trends for a-PA are analogous to what has been observed for nylon 6; this suggests that a-PA, like nylon 6, has good affinity for the pristine silicate surface of the clay leading to better exfoliation and enhanced mechanical properties with one-tailed organoclay than multiple-tailed organoclay. Furthermore, heat distortion temperatures were predicted from the dynamic mechanical properties of nanocomposites.     

Supercritical CO2 as an exfoliating aid for nanocomposite preparation: Comparison of different processing methodologies

This article examines several new methods for compounding nanocomposite materials by twin screw extrusion that use supercritical CO₂ as a processing aid to produce more highly exfoliated polyolefin‐layered silicate nanocomposites than conventional melt intercalation. These methods varied the manner in which the plasticizing behavior of CO₂ influences the surfactant of an organoclay, the compatibilizer, and the matrix during preparation of a polyolefin nanocomposite. The results have shown that targeting CO₂ to the organoclay‐compatibilizer interface can improve the extent of intercalation. However, reduced performance was observed when CO₂ was introduced predominantly to the matrix or neat organoclay. In general, the different techniques of addition for CO₂ did bring about greater structural changes to the organoclay, but the stiffness of the resulting materials was lower than simply following a conventional melt intercalation approach. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 2012. © 2012 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Effect of organoclay on the properties of maleic‐anhydride grafted polypropylene and poly(methyl methacrylate) blend

Poly(methyl methacrylate)/polypropylene (PMMA/PP) and PMMA/maleic‐anhydride grafted PP (MAPP) blends and their blend nanocomposites containing 2 wt% organoclay (Cloisite 15A, denoted C15A), prepared by a melt mixer were studied. Both X‐ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed exfoliated polymer blend nanocomposites. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies indicated a droplet dispersion morphology for all the blends while addition of C15A into PMMA/MAPP blend resulted to a co‐continuous morphology. In fact, rheological data and thermal properties indicated that the PMMA/MAPP/C15A nanocomposite showed a better homogeneous dispersion of silicate layers than PMMA/PP/C15A nanocomposite. A Cole–Cole plot and relaxation modulus indicated a solid‐like character for PMMA/MAPP and PMMA/MAPP/C15A, while a liquid‐like behavior was noticed for PMMA/PP and PMMA/PP/C15A. The effect of an organoclay on the dynamic mechanical properties of samples was investigated using dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) which showed a significant enhancement on the storage modulus of the PMMA/MAPP/C15A as compared to PMMA/PP/C15A . POLYM. COMPOS., 38:431–440, 2017. © 2015 Society of Plastics Engineers