Project Management and Green Buildings: Lessons from the Rating Systems

Building sector is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions around the globe. Being green, or sustainable, is one pressing issue coming from both internal and external drivers for construction and engineering companies. Green building has experienced rapid growth in the past several years. To assess how green, or sustainable, the building is, several green rating systems have been developed. Among these rating systems, more similarities exist than differences. One noteworthy difference—project management—serves as the motivation behind this investigation. To identify the role of project management that is less related to technology and engineering in developing green building rating systems, this research centers on a comparison between the LEED, the Green Globes, and the BCA Green Mark to obtain an understanding of current practices, and more importantly, to address the significance of project management in achieving green or sustainable construction. The findings suggest that project management adopted in green building construction involves both the practice and the process. Although the practice—mainly represented through the project management body of knowledge—is currently the focus of green building construction, the importance of the process, such as managing people, organizational structure, building commissioning, performance documentation, and so on, cannot be neglected, as can be seen from the evolution of the green rating systems. It is recommended that the construction and engineering companies take project management in terms of both the process and the practice into consideration when fulfilling requirements of being green.     

Optimization of Project Time-Cost Trade-Off Problem with Discounted Cash Flows

Traditional time-cost trade-off (TCTO) analysis assumes constant value of activities’ cost along the project time span. However, the value of money decreases with time and, therefore, discounted cash flows should be considered when solving TCTO optimization problem. Optimization problems in project management have been traditionally solved by two distinctive approaches: heuristic methods and optimization techniques. Although heuristic methods can handle large-size projects, they do not guarantee optimal solutions. A nonlinear mathematical optimization model for project TCTO problem is developed, which minimizes project direct cost and takes into account discounted cash flows. Costs of activities are assumed to be incurred at their finish times. The model guarantees the optimal solution, in which precise discrete activity time-cost function is used. The model input includes precedence relationship between project activities, discrete utility data for project activities, and discount rate. Details of model formulation are illustrated by an example project. The results show that selected activities’ durations and costs and consequently optimal project duration differ from traditional analysis if discounted cash flow is considered. The new approach provides project practitioners with a way for considering net present value in time-cost decisions so that the best option can be identified.     

Building Reuse Assessment for Sustainable Urban Reconstruction

Building reuse is a linchpin to managing solid waste. Despite the various benefits beyond contributing to sustainability that can be realized through building reuse, including direct and indirect cost savings, truncated construction schedules, and reduced site disruptions, little formal consideration has been given to this topic, which places professional engineers at a disadvantage when considering this as a design option. As each building project has its own specific requirements, reuse is not always the most economical solution, but, in cases where reuse is in part motivated by other factors such as heritage protection, substantial economic and environmental savings can be realized in tandem. Based on nearly two decades of professional experience, a generalized assessment method for reuse is proposed to facilitate benefit maximization. Applying this 10-step method, the costs related to building replacement and sustainable reuse are compared using two case histories and a theoretical building. A clear correlation is shown with the potential for savings as a function of project size.     

Global Dimension of Robust Project Network Design

Managing the increased complexity, emerging uncertainties, and diversity of cultures on global projects is creating significant challenges for architecture, engineering, and construction firms. In global projects, differences in “institutions”—including language, beliefs, values, group norms, work practices, professional roles, industry organizations, and legal frameworks—among team members from different national backgrounds can lead to misunderstanding and conflicts that cause delays, increase costs, and reduce quality. Previous research has examined risk factors associated with international project execution. However, little research to date has explored whether reconfiguring project networks might mitigate such risks. Project organizational simulation tools have been combined with “robust design” experimental techniques to design robust project networks that can perform reliably in uncertain conditions. This paper extends project network design research to examine whether robust designs for given project networks differ between “domestic” and “global” projects, given differing organizational uncertainties. The results demonstrate that robust project network designs may differ for global project networks. This finding has significant implications for the design of project networks in an industry where firm participation in global project networks is increasing, both domestically and abroad.     

Best Practices for Integrating the Concurrent Engineering Environment into Multipartner Project Management

The use of the Internet, e-mail, and other technologies has been steadily filtering into the building process, creating a concurrent engineering (CE) environment, and enabling collaborative efforts in the building process. The concurrent engineering environment is established by a variety of tools, including internet accessible servers, e-mail, mobile telephones, and many other existing CE tools. Organizations involved in the construction process recognize the need for assessment of benefits resulting from CE tools, but find the evaluation of these benefits difficult and complicated. The project presented in this paper, “project management and organization in the concurrent engineering environment (ProCE),” is applicable to both researchers and practitioners. The ProCE project developed a measuring model, which may be used by future researchers in this area, attempted to measure benefits derived from using the CE environment in construction design and project management routines, and developed guidelines for best practice implementation by practitioners, based on four case studies. The project included the measurement of both the quantitative and qualitative benefit of CE environment implementation in building construction projects using tools that were readily available through application service providers. Measurement of cost and other quantifiable benefits have been extensively studied. Therefore, the majority of the discussion in the current paper will address the ProCE project’s measurement of qualitative benefits.     

Continuous Value Enhancement Process

The demand for sustainable buildings is an important emerging trend in the building industry. However, the task of delivering these facilities is more difficult than for traditional projects and existing project management techniques struggle to handle the high levels of complexity present. A process-based model, called the continuous value enhancement process (CVEP), was developed to systematically generate and evaluate project alternatives leading to high performance solutions that improve project performance and increase levels of sustainability. Developed specifically to address the challenges facing the Pentagon renovation—which will become the world’s largest green office renovation—CVEP is tested to research its ability to support project management decision making in ways that elevate sustainability and project performance. The key contributions of this model include the integration of sustainable objectives into project management practices, and the development of a metric for measuring the quality and focus of project team decisions.     

Alternative Delivery Approaches for Military Medical Construction Projects

Military medical construction projects take more than 10 years to complete, from the time the need for a new facility is identified until the building actually opens for occupancy. This time is often extended even further due to complications during the design and construction process. Furthermore, these projects often are completed well over their original budget. Although there are many reasons for this exorbitant amount of time and many causes for the budgetary problems, one of the major factors is the reliance on the traditional methods of a lump-sum contract and the design∕bid∕build project delivery approach. The writers illustrate how the use of alternative project delivery methods (specifically construction management and design∕build) can reduce the amount of time it takes to design and build a new military medical facility, as well as reduce the overall cost of the project. The advantages offered by these alternative delivery methods are set forth, and their applicability within the federal procurement process is discussed. Several recommendations are then given for using these methods for the design and construction of military medical facilities.     

Modification of Minimum Moment Approach in Resource Leveling

This paper proposes a modification to the minimum moment approach that is used for resource leveling as presented by Harris and based upon the critical path method. The proposed and the traditional methods were developed with the assumption of no activity splitting and a fixed project duration with unlimited availability of resources. The difference between these methods is in the criteria of selecting the activity that has to be shifted from its original position to a better position. This is judged by the change in the statical moment of the resource histogram before and after such movement. In the proposed method, and for the activities that lie at the same sequence step, the activity that is to be shifted first is selected based upon both the value of its free float (S) and the value of its resource rate (R). In this way, the calculation of the improvement factor is needed only to determine the extent to which an activity is to be shifted. On the other hand, using the traditional method, the activity with the maximum improvement factor found for each possible day of shifting is selected first. The process is then repeated for all remaining activities using the updated histogram resulting from the shifted activity. The proposed method significantly reduces the calculations so that the number of iterations in each sequence step is equal to the number of its noncritical activities (n) as compared to (n!) in the traditional method. In addition, the calculation process using the proposed method is easier—especially for manual computations—than the traditional one. The results were insignificantly different, and in many cases they were identical. In this paper, the traditional and the proposed methods will be presented along with an example problem that was solved using the two methods. It should be noted that neither of the two methods provides the true minimum moment.     

Communication Patterns in Construction at Construction Manager Level

The procurement process of construction projects has been affected by developments in the field of Information Technology, as well as by the need to cope with growing technological challenges stemming from the integration of multiple building systems into tall and complex buildings. Furthermore, since the procurement phases are undertaken simultaneously, project complexity is increased, and increased integration among them is therefore required. These constraints have made the management of complex construction projects less of an architectural and engineering issue and more of a managerial one. In turn, this has led to an increasing use of the “construction management” concept in the procurement process. This study focused on communications in construction management procurement of building and residential projects in Israel. Communications between the construction manager and the design team were found to be vital in ensuring adherence to project objectives. Communication means were classified as “formal”—written technical information, and as “informal”—verbal communications. Construction managers in Israel still use informal communications in 50% of their interactions with their project counterparts. The study concludes that design capabilities should be one of the essential qualifications required of a construction management firm. In addition to the more traditional responsibilities, such as planning, scheduling, and coordination, the scope of the construction manager’s professional duties should emphasize the aspect of quality management.     

Automated Rebar Constructability Diagnosis

In spite of impressive progress in project modeling and computer-integrated construction, there is little real integration—manual or computerized—between design and construction of building projects. Consequently, constructability problems are experienced during the construction phase. With regard to rebar, constructability problems are discovered either after casting the reinforced concrete element or not at all, resulting in a weaker element. This paper describes a rebar constructability model, which was developed in an object-oriented graphic environment. The model is intended to be used during the design phase to automatically diagnose potential rebar-related constructability problems (the Diagnosis Module), as well as to offer solutions and implement them (the Correction Module). Of these two modules, the Diagnosis Module was implemented in a concept-proving prototype. The proposed model searches for constructability problems through all relevant parts of the building. This search includes the structural design, as well as other building systems (e.g., sanitary, drainage, HVAC). The model also checks for potential collisions between reinforcement bars and temporary inserts (e.g., form ties). Thus, in addition to the resulting increased constructability, the model also has potential as a system coordination tool.     

模糊层次分析法在我国深空探测方案优选应用探究

中国深空探测是复杂的系统工程,涉及领域多、技术难度大、经费需求高,目前方案优选方法是论证组论证和中介机构专家评估后形成,该方法论证周期长,不易快速做出科学决策。本文基于模糊层次分析模型,考虑技术、科学、经费等多指标多层次结构,建立系统指标评价模型。以中国探月工程中嫦娥四号任务方案为具体算例,综合专家判断和理论分析,建立各层次指标的判断矩阵,计算权重系数,进而实现总体方案的优选应用评价。结果表明,技术、科学和经费这三个因素相对于周期和效益更为重要。在4个备选方案中,由长征四号丙发射中继星,长征三号乙发射着陆器和巡视器组合体的方案,排序权值最大,因此该方案为最优方案,这也与实际情况一致。本研究可为我国后续各类深空探测方案制定提供快速及科学的理论支撑。      

Computer Imagery and Visualization in Civil Engineering Education

Higher education institutions in the United Kingdom have invested significantly in the implementation of communication and information technology in teaching, learning, and assessment of civil and building engineering—with mixed results. This paper focuses on the use of digital imagery and visualization materials to improve student understanding. It describes ways in which these materials are being used in the civil and building engineering curriculum, and, in particular, how distributed performance support systems (DPSS) can be applied to make more effective use of digital imagery and visualization material. This paper centers on the extent to which DPSS can be used in a civil and building vocational and continuing professional development context by tutors in the form of an electronic course delivery tool and by students in the form of an open-access student information system. This paper then describes how a DPSS approach to education is being adopted at Loughborough University as part of the CAL-Visual project. After highlighting the main aims and objectives of the project and describing the system, this paper discusses some of the issues encountered during the design and implementation of a DPSS and presents some preliminary results from initial trials.     

Global Optimization of Combined Region Aggregation and Leveling Model

The advent and widespread use of innovative spatial analysis technologies, such as geographic information systems (GIS), computer aided design (CAD) systems, and global positioning systems (GPS), have prompted great interest in spatial optimization. The tasks of selecting an optimal subregion from a larger region—region aggregation—and determining an optimal strategy for cutting and filling that subregion to a uniform elevation—land leveling—are examples of spatial analyses that can benefit from these powerful computer technologies. The combined region aggregation and leveling problem is a complex spatial problem that often involves the comprehensive consideration of multiple, incommensurate, and often conflicting objectives, while at the same time satisfying a set of prespecified physical and logical constraints. Traditionally, these two problems are solved separately, often precluding the identification of global optima. Through this research, a multiobjective integer programming model that considers these problems simultaneously is formulated, a computational algorithm for solving the model is presented, and numerical results that demonstrate the efficiency and effectiveness of this procedure are discussed. Computational experiments report polynomial complexity of the heuristic procedure against exponential worst-case complexity of traditional enumerative methods.     

Achieving Lean Design Process: Improvement Methodology

An improvement methodology is proposed for the design process in construction projects. Based on concepts and principles of lean production, the methodology considers the design process as a set of three different models—conversion, flow, and value. Four stages are necessary to produce improvements and changes—(1) diagnosis/evaluation; (2) changes implementation; (3) control; and (4) standardization. The methodology suggests the application of seven tools in accordance to specific needs (detected and desired) on five potential areas of improvement—client, administration, project, resources, and information. Results of an application included an increase of 31% in the share of value adding activities, 44% reduction of unit errors in the products, up to 58% decrease of waiting times in the process, and an expansion of the utilization in the cycle times. In this manner, not only did the efficiency and effectiveness of internal engineering products improve, but also the whole project, by improving one of the main suppliers of construction.     

基于模糊聚类及层次分析法的采矿方法综合评判优选

以程潮铁矿为工程背景,将采矿方法初选视为分类问题来处理,采用模糊聚类法从技术影响因素方面按照相似程度对采矿方法进行了分类初选,避免了以往采用工程类比进行初选的主观随意性,提高了采矿方法初选方法的科学性.在此基础上,运用层次分析法,综合考虑经济、资源、效率、安全及环境等五大类因素,构建了较为全面的采矿方法选择综合层次评价指标体系,并得到了合理的权重矩阵,较好地解决了多因素决策时各方案评判指标出现优越性交叉时的权重分配问题.最后采用模糊综合评判方法确定最优采矿方法.      

基于变权重理论和TOPSIS的缓倾斜薄矿脉采矿方法优选

针对高品质缓倾斜薄矿脉的采矿方法优选难题,提出采用变权重分析法与TOPSIS相结合的综合评判标准体系,对多种采矿方法进行综合评判优选。首先,建立综合评价指标体系,考虑到层次分析法等常规方法确定的常权在评价各方案时可能会出现“状态失衡”的现象,引入变权重理论,以保证各因素的均衡性;然后利用逼近理想解的排序法（TOPSIS）,得出各方案的优越度;最后,以内蒙古某矿山采矿方法优选为例,提出4种方案,分别为两步骤回采的分条密接充填法（方案Ⅰ）、铲运机出矿上向水平分层充填法（方案Ⅱ）、电耙出矿上向水平分层充填法（方案Ⅲ）和房柱法（方案Ⅳ）,对这4种方案进行优选。研究结果表明：4种方案的优越度依次为82.5%、32.8%、55.3%和53.8%,最终选择的方案为两步骤回采的分条密接充填法（方案Ⅰ）,该结果与工程实际相符合,表明该研究思路对采矿方法的优选具有参考价值,为今后工程中采矿方法优选问题提供了一种科学有效的分析方法。     

基于最优组合赋权的地下矿山岩体质量可拓评价模型

岩体质量分级辩识是矿山工程设计、施工与支护的基础,在岩体工程应用中具有重要的意义。应用可拓学理论,以司家营铁矿超大规模地下采场的岩体工程为例,选取岩石单轴抗压强度、围岩质量指标、结构面摩擦系数、节理间距、地下水状态和完整性系数等评价指标,建立矿山岩体质量评价物元模型。基于最优组合赋权理论,提出了将层次分析法和熵值法获得的权值进行最优组合的指标权重系数的确定方法。研究结果表明：（1）计算获得了待评价岩体的工程质量特征值,实现了岩体工程分类,客观反映岩体与相邻岩体等级间的差值,为矿山岩体工程提供基础的设计参数;（2）基于最优组合赋权的权重系数,可以实现多种权重值的组合赋权,降低不同赋权间的误差,提高了质量评价的准确性;（3）评价结果与工程地质RMR法、层次分析法和熵权法评价结果一致性高,说明评价结果可靠;（4）基于离差平方和最大,使得评价结果之间的离散性高,更有利于决策。     

Survey of Residential Foundation Design Practice on Expansive Soils in the San Francisco Bay Area

The San Francisco Bay Area, California has experienced significant population growth over the last 60 years. The design practices for residential foundations have evolved substantially over this period, as a result of improved geologic characterizations, better engineering understandings of foundation performance, building code changes, and project litigation. The majority of residential foundations are constructed on expansive soils and bedrock, with the primary movement as a result of swell due to wetting of materials in an arid environment. A survey of design practice of practicing geotechnical engineers in the bay area was conducted using a written questionnaire and telephone interviews to compile data regarding the most commonly used design procedures, design details, drainage recommendations, and construction monitoring practices. The results of this survey are compiled and presented in this paper. Three primary foundation systems were identified in the survey as being commonly used in the bay area—rigid footing grids, drilled piers, and mats/slabs. To illustrate problems that have occurred with each of these foundation systems, case histories are presented for recent bay area expansive soil projects for each of these three foundation types.     

Greening Project Management Practices for Sustainable Construction

Environmentally sustainable building construction has experienced significant growth during the past 10 years. The public is becoming more aware of the benefits of green construction as prominent politicians, celebrities, documentarians, and journalists highlight the built environment’s impact on greenhouse gas emissions and natural resource consumption. Other factors, including higher energy prices, increased costs of building materials, and regulatory incentives, are also pushing the green building market to grow and expand. However, barriers to green building continue to exist, including the ability to deliver a green project within acceptable cost constraints. In order for project managers to deliver sustainable construction according to clients’ cost expectations, modifications must be made to traditional project management processes and practices. The objective of this paper is to suggest specific modifications to conventional building practices to optimize the delivery of cost-efficient green building projects. This paper presents an overview of research related to the costs and trends of green building and uses these research findings to make recommendations for greening project management practices for the construction industry. Our research results show that greening project management practices can add significant value to a sustainable construction project while delivering it within acceptable cost constraints. A detailed analysis using matrix present specific adjustments to traditional project management practices, with a premise that a green project improves its chances for financial success if a cross-discipline team is involved at the earliest stages and throughout the project.     

Enhancing Value Engineering Process by Incorporating Inventive Problem-Solving Techniques

The creativity phase is critical to the success of a value engineering exercise, in which the brainstorming technique is deployed to generate ideas. One shortcoming of the brainstorming technique is its lack of direction in problem solving, and consequently the efficiency is low in generating innovative and useful ideas. To overcome this shortcoming, this paper has explored the possibility of incorporating the theory of inventive problem solving (TRIZ) into the workshop session of the value engineering exercise by initiating three new procedures in this session: (1) an initial design procedure to examine the functions of a proposed project; (2) a function trimming procedure to fully utilize existing resources and ensure low life-cycle cost and sustainability of the proposed project; and (3) an interaction analysis procedure to assess the proposed project in a broad perspective with social, economic, and environmental awareness. A case study has indicated the workability of the modified workshop procedures and the usefulness of TRIZ tools and techniques in efficiently and effectively creating innovative ideas.