Perception of discrimination and ethnocultural variables in a diverse group of adolescents

Despite current interest in the multi-dimensionality of culture and ethnicity there are few studies that have explored the role of discrimination with ethnocultural variables. In this study social identity theory was used as a framework to test the relation between discrimination and components of ethnic identity, and attitudes towards out-groups. A school-based survey in a large south-west metropolitan area in 1994 was undertaken with students (n=3071) of African-American, European-American, Mexican-American, and Vietnamese-American descent using multiple measures of ethnicity. Hierarchical multiple regression results indicated that two components of ethnic identity played different roles in the relation between discrimination and attitudes towards others. Consistent with social identity theory, results indicated that perception of more discrimination was predicted by high ethnic exploration, and having more negative attitudes towards out-groups. However, ethnic affirmation, which is a positive sense of belonging to one's ethnic group, was only indirectly related to discrimination through attitudes toward others. In fact, contrary to social identity theory, a stronger sense of belonging to one's group was associated with more positive attitudes toward out-groups. Results have important implications for race relations.     

Ethnicity and gender in late childhood and early adolescence: Group identity and awareness of bias.

The current study examined awareness of gender and ethnic bias and gender and ethnic identity in 350 African American, White/European American, and Latino/Hispanic students (Mage = 11.21 years, SD = 1.59) from the 4th, 6th, and 8th grades of diverse middle and elementary schools. The study collected (a) qualitative data to best capture the types of bias that were most salient to children and (b) daily diaries and individual measures to examine the multiple components of children's gender and ethnic identities. Results revealed ethnic, gender, and grade-level differences in awareness of ethnic and gender bias. Overall, more children were aware of gender bias than ethnic bias. This effect was most pronounced among White/European American youths. Among those in 4th grade, African American and Latino youths were more likely to be aware of ethnic bias than were White/European American youths. Analyses also examined how awareness of bias was related to gender and ethnic identity. For example, children who had a salient and important gender identity, and a devalued ethnic identity, were less likely than other children to be aware of ethnic bias. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anti-Black racism, self-esteem, and the adjustment of White students in higher education.

The present study examined the negative consequences of racism to White university students. It was hypothesized that anti-Black racism would impact students' self-esteem, college social adjustment, and college personal-emotional adjustment above and beyond academic adjustment. It was further expected that self-esteem would mediate the relationship between racism and college adjustment. In a White university student sample, students reporting attitudes reflecting a combination of overtly racist and egalitarian attitudes toward Blacks also reported lower levels of self-esteem and college social adjustment. Furthermore, self-esteem mediated the relationship between anti-Black racism and college social adjustment. Findings inform the multidimensional nature of negative consequences of racism to Whites in higher education. A discussion of implications from this research with regard to the creation of diverse and culturally sensitive university environments is presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial(ized) Identity, Ethnic Identity, and Afrocentric Values: Conceptual and Methodological Challenges in Understanding African American Identity.

A survey of the literature reveals that there is conceptual confusion and inconsistent and sometimes inappropriate usage of the terms racial identity, ethnic identity, and Afrocentric values. This study explored the extent to which Black racial(ized) identity attitudes were related to ethnic identity and Afrocentric cultural values. Two hundred and one African American college students attending a predominantly White university or a historically Black university completed the Cross Racial Identity Scale (B. J. Vandiver et al., 2000), the Nadanolitization Scale (J. Taylor & C. Grundy, 1996), the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (J. S. Phinney, 1992), and the Africentrism Scale (C. Grills & D. Longshore, 1996). Results of a canonical correlation indicated 2 significant orthogonal roots that were labeled a nonracialized ethnic identity and a racialized ethnic identity. The results suggest important similarities and differences among the various identity constructs. Implications for racial and ethnic identity research and Afrocentric research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neither colorblind nor oppositional: Perceived minority status and trajectories of academic adjustment among Latinos in elite higher education.

As more Latinos experience upward social mobility, it is increasingly necessary to challenge oppositional cultural assumptions to explain how perceived minority status barriers may influence their academic achievement. The present study builds on previous work that identified 3 distinct minority status orientations among Latino college students entering elite colleges—which the authors call assimilation, accommodation, and resistance. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Freshmen, the authors examined how these orientations influence Latino students’ academic and social adjustment from their freshman to junior years of college. Latino students who most strongly questioned the openness of the opportunity structure to ethnic minorities—resisters—reported similar grades and time spent studying as their counterparts who perceived less ethnic and racial inequities. In addition, resisters did not disengage from their social environment but rather became increasingly involved in campus activities outside the classroom during their college career. Implications for understanding ethnic minority individuals’ interpretations of social stratification in well-resourced, high-achieving contexts are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does ethnic identity buffer or exacerbate the effects of frequent racial discrimination on situational well-being of Asian Americans?

A quasi-experimental vignette study was conducted to test whether ethnic identity moderated the effects of frequent racial discrimination on situational positive and negative affect of Asian American college students. Results showed that imagining multiple incidents of racial discrimination was related to higher negative affect than imagining a single incident. Asian Americans with high ethnic identity reported lower positive affect when imagining multiple incidents of racial discrimination compared to individuals with high ethnic identity imagining a single incident; by contrast, Asian Americans with low ethnic identity reported higher positive affect when imagining multiple incidents of racial discrimination compared to individuals with low ethnic identity imagining a single incident of racial discrimination. Results suggest ethnic identity may exacerbate the association between racial discrimination and situational well-being for Asian Americans. Moreover, post hoc analyses indicate that the relationship between ethnic identity and discrimination is more relevant for U.S.-born Asian Americans than it is for immigrant Asian Americans. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The development of ethnic identity during adolescence.

The development of ethnic identity is a critical facet of adolescence, particularly for adolescents of color. In order to examine the developmental trajectory of ethnic identity, African American, Latino American, and European American early and middle adolescents (N=420) were assessed over 3 years. Two components of ethnic identity were assessed--group-esteem was found to rise for both early and middle adolescents; exploration rose for middle adolescents. African Americans and Latino Americans were lower in group-esteem but have greater increases than European Americans, particularly across a school transition. The course of ethnic identity development during early and middle adolescence, the role of school context, and the variability in developmental trajectories among racial and ethnic groups are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Love-styles among Latino community college students in Los Angeles

145 Latino community college students enrolled in Chicano Studies classes in Los Angeles, California were administered a love-attitudes scale. Analysis showed that the mean scores and endorsement patterns were similar to those in earlier research on white-Latino and white-non-Latino students in the United States. Significant gender differences were found. Latino men scored more Ludic and Agapic than women. Researchers might examine the love-styles and ethnic identity in and out of marriage among Latinos, whites, and Asians in southern California.     

Ethnic Enclaves and the Dynamics of Social Identity on the College Campus: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly.

The effects of membership in ethnic organizations and fraternities and sororities on intergroup attitudes were examined using a 5-wave panel study at a major, multiethnic university. The results showed that these effects were similar for both minority and White students. Membership in ethnic student organizations for minorities and Greek organizations for Whites was anteceded by the degree of one's ethnic identity, and the effects of membership in these groups were similar, although not identical, for both White and minority students. These effects included an increased sense of ethnic victimization and a decreased sense of common identity and social inclusiveness. Consistent with social identity theory, at least a portion of these effects were mediated by social identity among both White and minority students. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Negotiating social identity when contexts change: Maintaining identification and responding to threat.

The impact of change in context on identity maintenance, the implications of maintenance efforts for group identification, and the effects of perceived threats to identity on self-esteem associated with group membership are examined in a longitudinal study of Hispanic students during their 1st year at predominately Anglo universities. Whereas ethnic identity is initially linked to the strength of the students' cultural background, maintenance of ethnic identity is accomplished by weakening that link and remooring the identity to the current college context. Results suggest 2 distinct paths by which students negotiate their ethnic identity in a new context. Students with initially strong ethnic identity become involved in cultural activities, increasing the strength of their identification. In contrast, students with initially weaker identification perceive more threat in the environment, show decreases in self-esteem associated with group membership, lowering identification with their ethnic group. The findings both support social identity theory and illustrate the need for more contextual analyses of identity processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transparency and trust as antecedents to perceptions of commitment to stated diversity goals.

Student perceptions of their university's commitment to its stated diversity goals impact important outcomes on campus. Perceptions that the university is committed to its stated diversity goals decreases perceptions of racial tensions on campus, while perceptions that the university is not committed to its stated diversity goals causes a host of negative outcomes for students, including higher perceptions of hostility and discrimination. Using a sample of 360 students at a small university, the current study addresses the relationships between trust, breach of obligations, transparency, and perceptions of the university's commitment to stated diversity goals. Results indicate that transparency and trust are important to building and maintaining the perception that the university is committed to its stated diversity goals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A critical paradox? Predictors of latino students' sense of belonging in college.

Data from the Diverse Democracy Project Study, a national longitudinal study of 1st-year students enrolled in 4-year public research universities who were followed into their 2nd year of college, were used to explore background characteristics and college experiences associated with Latino students' sense of belonging. A framework including perceptual and behavioral dimensions of campus climate was used to organize the analysis. The direct or indirect effects of positive diversity experiences, perceptions of a hostile racial/ethnic climate, other perceptions and behaviors regarding college experiences, and immigrant status on sense of belonging were examined. Structural equation modeling analyses revealed that measures of positive diversity experiences and engagement in the campus community were positively associated with sense of belonging and with perceptions of a hostile racial/ethnic climate. Being a 2nd-generation immigrant was negatively and indirectly related to sense of belonging. These findings indicate that Latino students find a sense of belonging in a more complex, paradoxical way than traditional theories of college transition would imply. Effectively measuring relationships among campus climate indicators for various racial/ethnic groups may require more sophisticated methodological approaches. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does college-based relationship education decrease extradyadic involvement in relationships?

We used latent growth curve modeling to examine the effectiveness of a relationship education intervention (Relationship U, or RU) on rates of extradyadic involvement in a sample of 380 college students in committed romantic relationships. RU is designed to be integrated into existing college courses; it educates students about partner selection, making healthy relationship transitions, communication skills, and the potentially negative consequences of cheating in romantic relationships and how to prevent its occurrence. Participants who received the intervention reported trajectories of less extradyadic involvement over time relative to control participants. Being female was not associated with less extradyadic involvement at baseline, but it did predict less extradyadic involvement over time across both intervention and control conditions. Implications for dissemination of relationship education are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Are teachers' expectations different for racial minority than for European American students? A meta-analysis.

Four quantitative meta-analyses examined whether teachers' expectations, referrals, positive and neutral speech, and negative speech differed toward ethnic minority students (i.e., African American, Asian American, and Latino/a) as compared with European American students. Teachers were found to hold the highest expectations for Asian American students (d = -.17). In addition, teachers held more positive expectations for European American students than for Latino/a (d = .46) or African American (d = .25) students. Teachers made more positive referrals and fewer negative referrals for European American students than for Latino/a and African American students (d = .31). Although teachers directed more positive and neutral speech (e.g., questions and encouragement) toward European American students than toward Latino/a and African American students (d = .21), they directed an equal amount of negative speech (e.g., criticism) to all students (d = .02). In general, teachers' favoring of European American students compared with African American and Latino/a students was associated with small but statistically significant effects. The meta-analyses suggest that teachers' expectations and speech vary with students' ethnic backgrounds. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cultural commitment and attitudes toward seeking counseling services in American Indian college students.

Counseling attitudes were assessed for American Indian college students rating themselves as either strongly or weakly committed to both Tribal and Anglo cultures. Participants strongly committed only to Tribal culture displayed more negative attitudes toward seeking counseling, recognizing a personal need for counseling, having confidence in mental health professionals, and interpersonal openness than those strongly committed only to the Anglo culture or to both cultures. Strongly committed participants demonstrated more negative attitudes toward interpersonal openness than those weakly committed to both cultures. Women showed more positive attitudes toward these issues than did men. It is recommended that counselors consider cultural commitment in understanding the hesitancy among potential American Indian clients to use conventional psychological services. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The impact of racial identity, ethnic identity, Asian values, and race-related stress on Asian Americans and Asian international college students’ psychological well-being.

The present study investigated the direct and moderating effects of racial identity, ethnic identity, Asian values, and race-related stress on positive psychological well-being among 402 Asian American and Asian international college students. Results revealed that the racial identity statuses Internalization, Immersion-Emersion, Dissonance, Asian values, and Ethnic Identity Affirmation and Belonging were significant predictors of well-being. Asian values, Dissonance, and Conformity were found to moderate the relationship between race-related stress on well-being. Specifically, individuals in low race-related stress conditions who had low Asian values, high Conformity, and low Dissonance attitudes started high on well-being but decreased as race-related stress increased. These findings underscore the importance of how racial identity statuses, Asian values, and ethnic identity jointly and uniquely explain and moderate the effects of race-related stress on positive well-being. Implications for future research and clinical practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A cross-cultural investigation of the relationship between ethnic prejudice, authoritarian ideology, and personality.

The studies done re the validation of the relationship between prejudice and authoritarianism on American Ss confounded ethnic prejudice and political attitude by the nature of the sample. An effort was made to investigate ethnic prejudice (as measured by the F Scale) independent of political (radical-conservatism) commitment by using Ss (Israeli students) demonstrating differential attitudes towards Arabs, but unanimity of feeling against Jewish immigrants from North Africa. The results provided a cross-cultural validation of the relationship between prejudice and authoritarianism. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Out on campus: sexual orientation and academic climate in a university context

Although lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) students often "come out" in university settings, empirical studies have demonstrated that these environments are often hostile toward them. The current paper posits that such hostile contexts adversely affect their educational experiences. Results from a survey of a stratified random sample of 1,927 undergraduate and graduate students on a scale measuring perceptions of academic climate (General Campus Climate) supported this claim: LGB students had more negative perceptions of a variety of campus factors. In addition, a scale measuring perceptions of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Campus Climate found that LGB students were more likely than heterosexuals to perceive the campus as inhospitable to LGB people. Women and racial and ethnic minorities were also more likely to rate the LGB climate as hostile. Finally, data from two scales measuring attitudes believed to influence these perceptions yielded gender, racial/ethnic, religious, and sexual orientation differences in theoretically meaningful directions. Results indicate that LGB students often experience the university in more negative ways than heterosexual students, and that certain campus communities--particularly women and racial/ethnic minorities--are more aware of this negativity and contribute to it less because of their relatively more progay attitudes. Implications for how to improve LGB students' experiences are discussed.     

Perceptions of the school social context across the transition to middle school: Heightened sensitivity among Latino students?

The current study was designed to examine the ways in which perceived behavioral norms among grade mates and school social climate vary across the transition to middle school. The main goals of the study were to test whether Latino students may be more sensitive to the school social climate than White students and whether perceived behavioral norms might help explain this association. Cross-sectional analyses comparing Latino and White students (N = 383) revealed that perceptions of school social climate and behavioral norms became more negative across the middle school transition. Multiple regression analysis showed that school climate perceptions predicted self-reported academic compliance and rule breaking only for Latino students. Mediational analysis revealed that the association between perceived climate and self-reported rule breaking was partially accounted for by perceptions of behavioral norms for rule breaking only among Latino students. Taken together, the results suggest that compared with White students, Latino students are more sensitive to school social climate as it relates to their school conduct. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Resilience Against Discrimination: Ethnic Identity and Other-Group Orientation as Protective Factors for Korean Americans.

This study investigated the resilience of 84 Korean American college students in the context of perceived ethnic discrimination. Two cultural resources, multidimensional ethnic identity and other-group orientation, were hypothesized as protective factors that moderate the negative effects of discrimination. Only 1 aspect of ethnic identity was found to have a moderation effect. Specifically, ethnic identity pride operated as a protective-reactive factor that moderated the effects of discrimination on depressive symptoms and social connectedness but not on self-esteem. Ethnic identity pride and perceived discrimination had first-order effects on self-esteem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)