Ballistic protection performance of curved armor systems with or without debondings/delaminations

In order to discern how pre-existing defects such as single or multiple debondings/delaminations in a curved armor system may affect its ballistic protection performance, two-dimensional axial finite element models were generated using the commercial software ANSYS/Autodyn. The armor systems considered in this investigation are composed of boron carbide front component and Kevlar/epoxy backing component. They are assumed to be perfectly bonded at the interface without defects. The parametric study shows that for the cases considered, the maximum back face deformation of a curved armor system with or without defects is more sensitive to its curvature, material properties of the ceramic front component, and pre-existing defect size and location than the ballistic limit velocity. Additionally, both the ballistic limit velocity and maximum back face deformation are significantly affected by the backing component thickness, front/backing component thickness ratio and the number of delaminations.     

Loosely woven fabric model with viscoelastic crimped fibres for ballistic impact simulations

A computational micro‐mechanical material model of loosely woven fabric for non‐linear finite element impact simulations is presented in this work. The model is a mechanism incorporating the crimping of the fibres as well as the trellizing. The equilibrium of the mechanism allows the straightening of the fibres depending on the fibre tension. The contact force at the fibre crossover point determines the rotational friction dissipating a part of the impact energy. The stress–strain relationship is viscoelastic based on a three‐element model. The failure of the fibres is strain rate dependent. The model is implemented as user defined subroutine in the transient finite element code LS‐DYNA. The ballistic impact simulations with the model are in good agreement with the experimental results. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

装甲钢焊缝区抗弹防护性能初步探讨

目的 初步探索装甲钢焊缝区的抗弹防护性能并提出防护能力提升措施。方法 通过对装甲钢焊接结构进行组织性能分析及抗弹性能测试,获得焊接对装甲车辆抗弹防护性能的影响规律,并对装甲车辆抗弹防护能力提升对策进行讨论。结果 装甲钢接头焊缝区宽度达到46 mm,焊缝中心硬度低于312HV,较母材区硬度降低40%以上;抗弹性能测试结果表明,焊缝区的抗弹性能较母材区的显著衰减,为提升装甲车辆整体抗弹防护能力,针对焊缝区薄弱点从焊接工艺控制、结构优化、加装防护组件3个方面进行讨论,并提出了相应的防护对策。结论 装甲钢焊缝区是抗弹防护的薄弱点,需通过一系列的防护措施减少焊缝区正面中弹概率,提高装甲车辆服役期间的抗弹防护能力。     

基于正交数值试验的反应装甲干扰射流参数敏感性研究

基于炸药冲击起爆的Lee-Tarver模型,利用AUTODYN有限差分程序对射流侵彻引爆"三明治"爆炸反应装甲,爆轰压力驱动飞板切割射流过程进行了三维数值模拟。针对反应装甲飞板厚度、夹层装药厚度及射流入射角厚度三个影响因素,确定了射流干扰效率的评估指标,采用正交统计试验方法,对射流干扰效率的评估指标进行了参数敏感性研究。结果表明,射流入射角度对射流评估指标横向动量、头部速度及穿透背板时间均具有显著性的影响,呈正比关系,是最主要的影响因素;飞板厚度对射流评估指标均有较大的影响,是第二主要影响因素;夹层装药厚度对射流头部速度影响无明显规律性,对射流穿透背板时间无显著影响。     

A multiscale and multiphysics numerical framework for modelling of hygrothermal ageing in laminated composites

In this work, a numerical framework for modelling of hygrothermal ageing in laminated composites is proposed. The model consists of a macroscopic diffusion analysis based on Fick's second law coupled with a multiscale FE² stress analysis in order to take microscopic degradation mechanisms into account. Macroscopic material points are modelled with a representative volume element with random fibre distribution. The resin is modelled as elasto‐plastic with damage, and cohesive elements are included at the fibre/matrix interfaces. The model formulations and the calibration of the epoxy model using experimental results are presented in detail. A study into the representative volume element size is conducted, and the framework is demonstrated by simulating the ageing process of a unidirectional specimen immersed in water. The influence of transient swelling stresses on microscopic failure is investigated, and failure envelopes of dry and saturated micromodels are compared. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Nomex Kevlar平纹织物超高速撞击本构模型开发

为了研究Nomex-Kevlar平纹织物对空间碎片的超高速撞击力学特性, 运用LS-DYNA本构模型二次开发技术开发了Nomex-Kevlar平纹织物在超高速撞击条件下的带最大应力失效标准的线弹性正交各向异性本构模型, 并定义了Nomex-Kevlar平纹织物在超高速撞击条件下的Gruneison状态方程参数。运用光滑粒子流体动力学方法和有限元方法建立了与NASA试验工况相同的Al-2017-T4球形弹丸以6.84km/s速度斜向30°撞击Nomex-Kevlar平纹织物的数值分析模型。仿真结果与试验结果的比较表明, 本文中开发的本构模型以及建立的数值分析模型可以准确描述Nomex-Kevlar平纹织物的超高速撞击力学特性。      

High-velocity impact of low-density projectiles on structural aluminum armor

The US Army Research Laboratory has been studying the impact physics of low-density projectiles on urban and light-armor structures for use in electro-magnetic cannons. In this paper, results of low-aspect ratio projectiles of nylon, aluminum and steel impacting aluminum armor at velocities above 2000 m/s will be presented. Both computational solid mechanics and analytic modeling techniques were used to supplement experiments to derive a toolkit for assessing target response and character of the debris created from different constant energy impact conditions.     

A model for ballistic impact on multi-layer fabric targets

An analytical model has been developed in this paper for the ballistic impact behavior of two-dimensional woven fabric composites of interest in body armor applications.     

Computational micro‐mechanical model of flexible woven fabric for finite element impact simulation

This work presents a computational material model of flexible woven fabric for finite element impact analysis and simulation. The model is implemented in the non‐linear dynamic explicit finite element code LSDYNA. The material model derivation utilizes the micro‐mechanical approach and the homogenization technique usually used in composite material models. The model accounts for reorientation of the yarns and the fabric architecture. The behaviour of the flexible fabric material is achieved by discounting the shear moduli of the material in free state, which allows the simulation of the trellis mechanism before packing the yarns. The material model is implemented into the LSDYNA code as a user defined material subroutine. The developed model and its implementation is validated using an experimental ballistic test on Kevlar woven fabric. The presented validation shows good agreement between the simulation utilizing the present material model and the experiment. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effect of matrix on ballistic performance of soft body armor

We analyze three-dimensional (3-D) deformations of soft body armor in the form of a clamped rectangular plate impacted at normal incidence by a projectile. Results have been computed by the finite element method, using the commercial software LSDYNA, for the armor with and without a matrix, and in the former case with either perfect or no bonding between the matrix and the yarn. Also, two impact speeds and two polymers, one stiffer than the other, have been considered. Significant contributions of the work include studying 3-D elastoplastic deformations, and delineating the effect of the matrix on the ballistic performance of the armor. It is found that the matrix reduces the maximum deflection of the armor, increases the size of the deformed area, and enhances the reduction in the kinetic energy of the projectile. However, the size of the deformed area is not a good indicator of the energy absorbed during impact. These results are useful for armor designers since the reduction in the maximum deflection should reduce the intensity of injuries to persons wearing the armor. On the other hand the larger deformed area of the armor can increase the possibility of injuries.     

跨尺度预测非屈曲织物增强复合材料的刚度和强度

为了预测非屈曲织物增强复合材料的力学性能, 建立了纤维束的正六边形单胞和非屈曲织物复合材料的长方形单胞, 并重点推导了正六边单胞的方程边界条件。通过跨尺度逐级计算这两个单胞的有效弹性常数, 得到了非屈曲碳纤维织物增强环氧树脂基复合材料的宏观有效弹性性能和强度。对该非屈曲织物复合材料在拉伸载荷下的累计失效进行了有限元损伤分析。结果表明: 初始损伤发生在富树脂区或横向纤维束, 损伤在富树脂区与横向纤维束内逐步扩展, 最后向纵向纤维束扩展并迅速导致整体失效; 非屈曲织物增强复合材料的面内拉伸模量的计算预测值非常接近实验值, 面内拉伸强度计算值略小于实验值。     

Kevlar纤维织物的性能研究

通过电子织物强力仪、万能试验机、圆盘式平磨仪、广角X-射线衍射(WAXD)、示差扫描量热(DSC)、红外光谱(IR)、热失重分析(TG)对对位芳纶纤维(Kevlar Twaron)织物进行表征,分析了热处理前后KevLar纤维织物的取向结晶行为和热性能.结果表明,KevLar单纱的断裂强力为693.82 cN/tex,...     

Ballistic limit prediction using a numerical model with progressive damage capability

The ultimate objective of this study is to provide further understanding of the behaviour of laminated composites of varying lamina orientations and stacking sequences, when under high-velocity impact. Emphasis is placed on the determination of ballistic limits of these composites. To this end, an experimental program is carried out and a computational model, with progressive damage modeling capabilities, is developed using LS-DYNA. Experiments are performed whereby striking velocities are measured, via high-speed photography, to determine the ballistic limits of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates of various stacking sequences. The results are reproduced closely by a numerical simulation, indicating that the numerical analysis conducted, including the choice of material model and contact definition, is an accurate means for modeling the high-speed impact characteristics of CFRP laminates. It is found that the use of static elastic and strength properties to describe the material is reasonable, since strain rate effects are found to be negligible. The kinetic energy of the projectile, plotted over the simulated impact duration, is used as the prime parameter to compare the experimental and numerical results. The numerical results accurately predict the experimental ballistic limit for six of the seven tested laminate stacking sequences. Failure due to delamination is found to play a vital role with respect to the energy absorbing ability and lamina stacking sequence of CFRP laminates.     

Multiscale prediction of mechanical behavior of ferrite–pearlite steel with numerical material testing

Multiscale mechanical behaviors of ferrite–pearlite steel were predicted using numerical material testing (NMT) based on the finite element method. The microstructure of ferrite–pearlite steel is regarded as a two‐component aggregate of ferrite crystal grains and pearlite colonies. In NMT, the macroscopic stress–strain curve and the deformation state of the microstructure were examined by means of a two‐scale finite element analysis method based on the framework of the mathematical homogenization theory. The microstructure of ferrite–pearlite steel was modeled with finite elements, and constitutive models for ferrite crystal grains and pearlite colonies were prepared to describe their anisotropic mechanical behavior at the microscale level. While the anisotropic linear elasticity and the single crystal plasticity based on representative characteristic length have been employed for the ferrite crystal grains, the constitutive model of a pearlite colony was newly developed in this study. For that reason, the constitutive behavior of the pearlite colony was investigated using NMT on a smaller scale than the scale of the ferrite–pearlite microstructure, with the microstructure of the pearlite colony modeled as a lamellar structure of ferrite and cementite phases with finite elements. On the basis of the numerical results, the anisotropic constitutive model of the pearlite colony was formulated based on the normal vector of the lamella. The components of the anisotropic elasticity were estimated with NMT based on the finite element method, where the elasticity of the cementite phase was numerically evaluated with a first‐principles calculation. Also, an anisotropic plastic constitutive model for the pearlite colony was formulated with two‐surface plasticity consisting of yield functions for the interlamellar shear mode and yielding of the overall lamellar structure. After addressing the microscopic modeling of ferrite–pearlite steel, NMT was performed with the finite element models of the ferrite–pearlite microstructure and with the microscopic constitutive models for each of the components. Finally, the results were compared with the corresponding experimental results on both the macroscopic response and the microscopic deformation state to ascertain the validity of the numerical modeling. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Enrichment based multiscale modeling for thermo‐stress analysis of heterogeneous material

This paper details a novel new multiscale technique for modeling heterogeneous materials undergoing substantial thermal stresses. The technique is based on an enriched partition of unity approach that incorporates the thermal effects occurring on the microstructure into the global model. We demonstrate the effectiveness of this technique by implementing it into both the standard finite element method and the octree partition of unity method (OctPUM). The results demonstrate that the technique has uniquely improved accuracy over the homogenization method conditional to the method into which it is implemented in. The multiscale technique, when implemented into either the standard finite element method or OctPUM, increases the accuracy of the strain energy calculation. When the multiscale technique is implemented into OctPUM, it also is able to capture the unique stress fields on the microstructure of the model. Published 2012. This article is a US Government work and is in the public domain in the USA.     

爆炸成型弹丸对装甲靶板的高速冲击效应研究

摘　要：爆炸成型弹丸(Explosively Formed Projectiles,简称EFP)垂直高速冲击603装甲靶板实验,呈现了靶板入口卷边花瓣状破坏、出口具有拉伸断裂特征的外翻花瓣形穿孔、入口直径明显大于出口直径等宏观的冲击现象。为了从机理上研究EFP对装甲靶板的高速冲击效应,利用ANSYS/LS-DYNA动力学仿真软件,对整个冲击过程进行了数值模拟,再现了EFP形成、开坑、稳定侵彻、尾翼侵彻和冲塞贯穿的物理过程,模拟结果与实验现象吻合较好,并从原理上分析了实验中各宏观现象产生的原因。研究结果不但认识了EFP冲击装甲靶板的机理,也可为增强装甲防护能力和优化EFP设计提供理论参考,具有重要的现实意义和较高的工程应用价值。     

2.5D机织复合材料压缩性能实验与数值模拟

为了研究2.5D机织复合材料的压缩损伤和失效机制,验证双尺度渐进损伤有限元数值模拟方法的有效性,对这类复合材料分别沿经纱方向和纬纱方向进行了准静态压缩实验,获得了其相应的应力-应变曲线,并测定了材料的初始弹性模量和极限强度。在此基础上,利用双尺度渐进损伤有限元数值方法模拟分析了材料的压缩应力-应变响应和损伤演化行为,取得了与实验吻合较好的模拟结果。结果表明:2.5D机织复合材料在纬向压缩下的主要失效模式是纬纱的轴向压溃与断裂,可获得相对较高的压缩强度;但在经向压缩下,经纱因弯曲会承受附加弯矩作用,从而对周围基体造成挤压,故在经纱轴向断裂之前容易出现经纱之间基体的压溃和纱线之间的分层开裂,使强度降低,不利于发挥纤维的承载优势。     

基于耦合扩展多尺度有限元方法的功能梯度材料热应力分析

以高效模拟功能梯度材料(FGM)微观非均质性对整体热力学性能的影响为研究目的,通过随机形态描述函数(RMDF)法和体积分数的指数分布建立FGM二维微结构,在此基础上,发展了FGM热应力分析的耦合扩展多尺度有限元方法(CEMsFEM)。该方法基于扩展多尺度有限元方法(EMsFEM)的基本思想,对温度场和位移场构造数值基函数,以把微观非均质材料性质带到宏观响应中。同时为了考虑泊松效应导致的不同方向间的耦合作用,在位移场数值基函数中增加了耦合附加项。通过数值基函数建立宏微观单元信息的映射关系,在宏观尺度求解有效方程,节约计算量。为了更好地考虑微观载荷的影响,把结构的真实响应分解为宏观响应和微观扰动,进一步推导出修正的宏观载荷向量。通过不同体积分数分布的FGM在不同载荷工况下的热应力分析算例验证了本文中方法的正确性和有效性,最后讨论了微结构的尺寸效应对结构热力学响应的影响。     

Modeling the effects of yarn material properties and friction on the ballistic impact of a plain-weave fabric

Impact of a rigid sphere onto a high-strength plain-weave Kevlar KM2^® fabric was modeled using LS–DYNA^® focusing on the influence of friction and material properties on ballistic performance. Quasi-static friction was experimentally determined and incorporated into the model. Two clamped edges and two free edges were used as boundary conditions to correlate the model to an experimental test providing yarn–yarn movement. Yarns were modeled as continua with modulus and strength dominating along the length. Parametric studies incorporating different yarn material properties and initial projectile velocities were then performed with the above set of boundary conditions. Results indicate that ballistic performance depends upon friction, elastic modulus and strength of the yarns. While friction improves ballistic performance by maintaining the integrity of the weave pattern, material properties of the yarns have a significant influence on the effect of friction. It is shown that fabrics comprised of yarns characterized by higher stiffness and strength relative to the baseline Kevlar KM2^®, exhibited a stronger influence on ballistic performance. Therefore all three parameters viz., friction, elastic modulus and strength along with other variables (fabric architecture, boundary conditions, and projectile parameters) are needed to examine ballistic performance of high-strength fabric structures.