Drugs and placebos: The effects of instructions upon performance and mood under amphetamine sulfate and chloral hydrate.

The experiment reports the effects of appropriate and inappropriate instructions and 2 drugs (.5 g chloral hydrate and 10 mg racemic amphetamine sulphate) on motor performance and mood measures. The Ss were 90 older men randomly assigned to 9 experimental groups. The design used was expansion of a model design involving Drug Disguised groups, Placebo groups (300 mg lactose), an Untreated group, and Amphetamine, Chloral Hydrate, and Neutral instructions. The drugs and placebos were given to the Ss in capsules, and all Ss received orange juice, which was also the vehicle for the disguise. The Untreated group received orange juice only. Instructions alone affected performance, but had little or no effect on mood. Instructions appropriate to the presumed drug effects produced performance deterioration on the simple motor tasks used. Instructions inappropriate to the presumed drug effects counteracted much of the drug produced decrement. A slight decrement in performance was found in the Placebo group which received Amphetamine instruction. Amphetamine treated Ss produced reports of greater comfort on the mood index than did chloral hydrate. On the other hand, the chloral hydrate instructions resulted in greater comfort than the Amphetamine instructions. There was no interaction between drug effects and instructional effects. The 2 Placebo groups did not differ significantly on the mood index. The effects of instructions on mood were found only when the drug was present. Several suggestions are offered for further research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prediction of leadership in a simulated industrial task.

Ss high and low in dominance were selected with the CPI Dominance (Do) scale and confronted with a simulated industrial task which could be solved best by 1 person assuming a leader role and the other following his instructions. When the instructions emphasized the task, the High Do Ss did not assume the leader role significantly more often than the Low Do Ss. When leadership was emphasized, however, the High Do Ss assumed the leader role in 90% of the pairs. It is concluded that the CPI Do scale has predictive validity when leadership is made salient. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of instructions and modeling on self-disclosure.

Examined the relative effectiveness of modeling and instructional procedures in training college students to self-disclose. 48 male undergraduates were randomly assigned to 1 of the following instructional conditions: specific instructions to discuss personal feelings within specified topic areas, general instructions to discuss personal feelings within the same topics, or no instructions. Half of the Ss also listened to a model discussing his feelings within identical topic areas, and half did not receive a model. All Ss then participated in a brief monologue, which was scored for self-disclosure. Instructions and modeling, alone and in combination, increased the occurrence of self-disclosure, but the performance of the combination condition was not significantly greater than the performance of modeling or instructions alone. A post hoc analysis showed the instructional effect was due to the difference between specific instructions and no instructions. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Exposure to a model and task ambiguity as determinants of verbal behavior in an interview.

16 undergraduates listened to a tape-recorded model discuss personal problems within each of 5 topic areas, while the 16 control Ss did not receive a model. 1/2 the Ss were then told they could talk about anything they wished to in the interview. The remaining Ss were told they could talk about the same 5 topic areas discussed by the model. It was found that significantly more problems in the interview were given by the group receiving the model followed by the ambiguous task instructions. Ss exposed to the same model but who received topic-oriented instructions tended to give fewer problems in the interview. Theoretical similarities between the presentation of a model and the administration of instructions are discussed in the interpretation of the results. (23 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some characteristics of posthypnotic amnesia.

This experiment investigated (a) the differences in post-hypnotic amnesic characteristics of Ss with high and low hypnotic susceptibility and (b) the extent of the amnesia. The experimental Ss were presented 6 words under hypnosis with instructions for amnesia. The simulation Ss pretended they were hypnotized and received the words with instructions for posthypnotic amnesia. The control Ss were given the words with instructions only to remember them. Recognition, recall, and associative tests, administered immediately after, assessed the amnesia. Posthypnotic amnesia impaired recall and recognition among the experimental Ss, but did not reduce the availability of the words as associative responses. The simulating Ss overplayed their amnesic role and also showed impaired performance on the associative tests. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Physiological need, set, and visual duration threshold.

The interaction between the effect of deprivation level and set-inducing instructions on the thresholds of need-related words is investigated by presenting tachistoscopically to two groups of Ss, one group soon after mealtime and the other after about 9 hours food and water deprivation, a list of neutral words and then a list of need-related words, half of the Ss in each group receiving set instructions before the second list. The results indicate that while Ss given set instructions exhibit a significantly lower threshold for need-related words than did non-set groups, there is no difference in performance between satiated and deprived Ss, even among Ss not given set instructions. A second study, similar to the first, save that the set variable is eliminated and the words presented in mixed order showed no differences in the threshold for need-related words in the two groups of Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

GSR reactivity as a function of anxiety, instructions, and sex.

"GSR conditioning and extinction measures were obtained on 120 college Ss in a factorial experimental design in which 12 treatment groups were divided into 2 sex groups, 3 instruction groups, and high- and low-anxiety groups. The 3 instruction groups were given 3 different kinds of instruction designed to be: (a) apprehension arousing; (b) neutral; and (c) reassuring." Male Ss showed less conditioning when given reassuring instructions; female Ss showed the least conditioning with the apprehension-arousing instructions. Females showed greater GSR reactivity than males in all phases of the experiment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modeling and instructions in training for counselor empathy.

Assessed the relative contributions of modeling and instructions to training of counselor empathy in a factorial design incorporating 2 instruction conditions (instructions or no instructions) and 3 modeling conditions (high-empathy model, low-empathy model, or no model). Ss were 68 clergymen from various religious denominations. Ss wrote responses to a taped client in Phase 1, a training phase, and conducted an interview with a client (actor) in Phase 2, a generalization phase. Instructions had no effect on empathy offered by Ss, but Ss hearing a high-empathy model showed significantly higher empathy in Phase 1 responses than all other Ss. Findings were not significant in Phase 2. Reasons for lack of generalization and implications for further research and training are noted. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ontogenetic dissociation of two classes of habituation.

Determined the rates of decrement of 2 classes of response (an elicited startle reflex and emitted exploratory behavior) in rats of 2 different ages (15 and 36 days). Ss were 31 Sprague-Dawley albino rats. The rate of decrement in the startle reflex was not clearly differentiated as a function of age. In contrast, there was no evidence of habituation of exploration in the younger Ss, whereas older Ss uniformly showed profound response decrements. This ontogenetic dissociation of the 2 instances of response decrement indicates that accounts of both instances in terms of a common process called habituation may be unwarranted. In addition, these data, in conjunction with earlier findings, indirectly support the possibility that reflex decrements may be relatively more dependent on brain serotonin, whereas decrements in exploration may be more dependent on normal cholinergic activity in brain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Instructional desensitization: A semantic behavior treatment of anxiety disorder.

Explored the efficacy of instructional desensitization (ID) in the treatment of public speaking anxiety, using 30 speech-anxious undergraduates as Ss. Three self-report measures of confidence, affect, and anxiousness were completed by Ss, and 20 behavioral manifestations of anxiety were observed during Ss' delivery of a 4-min speech. Ss were randomly assigned to ID, placebo, or waiting list groups. Ss in the placebo group were led to believe that they were receiving a new form of therapy. Results show that ID Ss showed a significant decrement in their anxiety reactions as measured by objective and subjective anxiety measures. A significant anxiety decrement was also found in placebo Ss. However, self-report gains were not verified by objective observations. It is concluded that ID is a new semantic behavior therapy intervention that may have beneficial effects in the treatment of a broad variety of anxiety disorders. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Demonstration of presbycusis across repeated measures in a nonhuman primate species.

Over a period of 3 yrs, the authors repeatedly examined the progress of age-related hearing loss in 7 rhesus monkeys; 3 were 31 yrs old, 2 were 24 yrs old, and 2 were 9 yrs old. Pure-tone audiograms for 7 frequencies (.125, .500, 2.000, 4.000, 16.000, 22.667, and 32.000 kHz) were obtained by the psychophysical tracking method. Analysis indicated the presence of presbycusis in the older Ss. Ss demonstrating presbycusis showed a progressive decrement in the ability to detect higher frequencies and an overall hearing loss at all frequencies. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Motivation and competence as determinants of young children's reward allocation.

Young children's failure to use the rule of equity in situations involving reward allocation has led researchers to conclude that they lack the requisite level of cognitive sophistication. The present study examined the effects of allocation instructions and self-interest on the use of equity by 126 preschool children. Ss served either as workers on a task with another (fictitious) child or as "supervisors" for 2 other (fictitious) children. They were given allocation instructions in which the social demand for equity was or was not explicitly stated. When Ss were given allocation instructions with no explicit demand, there was no evidence of equity. When the demand for equity was explicit and self-interest was removed by assigning the child the role of supervisor, all Ss used equity in allocating rewards. In view of the demonstrated ability of preschoolers to apply equity, developmental differences in the motivational and social determinants of its use are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnosis, task-motivating instructions, and learning performance.

40 Ss, including 30 who had been previously rated as suggestible and 10 as nonsuggestible, were pretested and then retested on equivalent forms of 3 learning tasks: digit symbol substitution, memory for words, and abstract reasoning. All Ss received the pretests in the same way. The 30 suggestible Ss were retested under 1 of the following 3 experimental treatments with 10 Ss assigned at random to each treatment: task-motivating instructions, hypnotic induction procedure with task-motivating instructions, and control. The 10 nonsuggestible Ss were retested under a task-motivating-instructions treatment. Analyses of covariance indicated that (a) task-motivating instructions given alone or following a hypnotic induction procedure did not significantly affect performance on the memory for words or abstract reasoning tasks; and (b) task-motivating instructions produced a comparable enhancement of performance on the digit symbol substitution task in hypnotized and nonhypnotized Ss and in suggestible and nonsuggestible Ss. (33 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of meditation-relaxation on anxiety and depression in a geriatric population.

36 female volunteers (aged 63–79 yrs) participated in a 20-wk study on the effects of meditation-relaxation on symptoms of anxiety and depression. 83% of the Ss were widows and were selected because of complaints of anxiety, nervousness, tension, fatigue, insomnia, sadness, and somatic complaints. Ss were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups: relaxation-meditation, relaxation-meditation with a 10-wk follow-up consisting of instructions to practice on a daily basis using relaxation-meditation tapes, and a pseudo-relaxation control group. The treatment groups received 1 wk of baseline evaluation, 10 wks of 30-min training sessions, and a 10-wk follow-up, with taped relaxation sessions for the 2nd group. The control group followed an identical schedule for 10 wks but did not participate in the follow-up. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and Self-Rating Depression Scale were administered prior to treatment, at the end of training, and at the end of the follow-up period. In comparison to the control group, the treatment groups manifested a significant pre–posttreatment decrement for both state and trait anxiety. The practice group continued to show a decrement in state anxiety, while the no-practice group exhibited a return toward baseline levels. However, trait anxiety continued to decrease for both groups. When questions that correlated highly with anxiety and somatic symptoms were removed and analyzed separately, a significant pre- to posttreatment decrement in depression was noted. (58 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of physiological arousal level, frustration, and task complexity on performance.

This paper investigates the effects of initial heart-rate level, frustration, and task complexity on digit-symbol performance. Low (LD) and high (HD) heart-rate Ss worked on a digit-symbol problem immediately before and after a frustration manipulation which raised heart rate about 20 beats/min. The results indicated that HD Ss achieved higher initial performance scores than LD Ss on tasks of relatively low complexity; however, following frustration LD Ss manifested a significantly greater increment in performance than HD Ss. The latter group showed a trend toward a decrement in performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Alcohol's effects on physiological arousal and self-reported affect and sensations.

60 male normal drinkers (undergraduates) were instructed that they would receive an alcoholic, nonalcoholic, or an unidentified beverage that would be alcoholic or nonalcoholic. Half the Ss in each instruction group consumed an alcoholic beverage; the other half consumed a non-alcoholic beverage. Self-reports of affect (Mood Adjective Check List, Multiple Affect Adjective Check List) and bodily sensations and measures of pulse rate and skin conductance were obtained at baseline and during the ascending and descending phases of the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) function. Analysis of covariance showed that Ss who consumed alcohol reported higher levels of positive affects and sensations and lower levels of depression than Ss who did not consume alcohol. The instructional manipulation had a limited effect. Self-reports of affect and sensations were most affected by type of beverage consumed; sensations were also rated higher during the ascending than during the descending phase of the BAC. Physiological measures were influenced by instructions and beverage. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interaction of individual differences with visual and verbal elaboration instructions.

Investigated (a) to what extent the typical effects of elaboration instructions and the imagery characteristics of verbal material would obtain for foreign-language/English word pairs and (b) to what extent individual differences would moderate these effects. To explore these issues, verbal fluency, visualization ability, and instructions were factorially varied between Ss, and the imagery characteristics of the response terms were varied within Ss. 48 university students were selected for participation in the experiment on the basis of their performance on psychometric tests. The result of most interest was the crossover interaction between verbal fluency and elaboration instructions. Results are discussed in terms of Aptitude?×?Treatment interactions and the importance of individual differences in decisions regarding instructional methods. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effet du niveau de peur, de la nature des consignes et d'un re-test lors d'un test d'approche comportementale.

56 16–22 yr old female students with either a moderate or a strong fear of harmless snakes were selected on the basis of a combined score from the Fear Survey Schedule and another fear questionnaire. The 2 experimental groups were submitted twice to a test of behavioral approach whereas a control group was submitted only once to the test. For each level of fear, half of the Ss were given neutral instructions to approach the stimulus and the other half were strongly urged to approach it and go through the whole series of steps of the approach test. Ss in the experimental groups received the same instructions on both test occasions. Results show a retest effect (i.e., Ss were less fearful in the 2nd test), but no significant effect due to the type of instructions. Ss with the higher level of fear showed less approach behavior, went more slowly through the steps of the approach test, and verbally expressed stronger anxiety. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences in use of left–right visual cues: A reexamination of mirror-image confusions in preschoolers.

Developed and tested a model that views left–right mirror-image confusions in preschoolers as part of a general difficulty in distinguishing left–right visual cues. It is proposed that left–right development occurs in 3 distinct levels: Level 1 preschoolers have difficulty responding consistently to left–right cues in their visual field; Level 2 children are capable of noticing but need instructions directing their attention to the relevant information; and Level 3 preschoolers spontaneously attend to these cues. In this study, 38 3- and 4-yr-olds' responses to left–right visual cues were evaluated on ability to distinguish left–right mirror-images of objects on a memory task and also on ability to name rows of objects on a page in a consistent lateral direction. Both abilities were assessed, first, without specific instructions on the relevance of left–right information and then with instructions. Ss were divided into 3 subgroups: spontaneous responders (Level 3), instructed learners, (Level 2), and nonlearners (Level 1). As predicted Ss generally performed at the same level for both left–right problems. Thus, levels of mirror-image ability reflect a broader developmental sequence. Confounding effects of general ability are unlikely to account for this, because correlation between left–right problems remained high (.62) when IQ effects were removed. Sharp age differences occurred, and a longitudinal follow-up showed Level 1 3-yr-olds performing at Level 2 for both tasks when retrained after 6–20 mo. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)