Recall of pleasant and unpleasant words in depressed subjects.

In Exp I, 20 clinically depressed inpatients (mean age 39.9 yrs), 20 nondepressed inpatients (mean age 42.65 yrs), and 20 nonpatients (mean age 44 yrs) were shown a word list containing pleasant and unpleasant words. One-half of Ss in each group were given free-recall instructions, the other half were asked to rate each word on a pleasantness scale prior to recall. Results show that only depressed Ss given free-recall instructions recalled more unpleasant words than pleasant words. In Exp II, 30 clinically depressed inpatients (mean age 39.33 yrs) were shown a word list consisting of either (1) pleasant and unpleasant words, (2) unpleasant words, or (3) pleasant words. Results show that only Ss receiving the mixed list recalled more unpleasant than pleasant words. Findings support the hypothesis that depressed Ss selectively process unpleasant words and that this processing is at the expense of attention to pleasant words. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Life events and personal causation: Some relationships with satisfaction and distress.

Hypothesized that Ss who engaged in more positive origin activities would rate their lives as more satisfying than Ss who engaged in fewer such activities, and both would be more satisfied than control Ss. After completing a series of questionnaires including a life-event inventory, 3 groups of college students were selected from a pool of 141 and given instructions either to (a) engage in 12 activities from a self-selected list of pleasurable activities, (b) engage in 2 activities from that list, or (c) return after 1 mo for retesting only. Ss were then given a pleasantness-of-events test, an event-frequency test, the Perceived Quality of Life Scale, the Beck Depression Inventory, and a 54-item Symptom Check List. Covariance analyses revealed that Ss instructed to engage in either 2 or 12 pleasurable activities reported greater pleasantness and a higher quality of life than controls; there were no differences between groups on reports of psychiatric distress. Prior negative life change was treated as a factor in the design and was found to interact with the activity instructions: Ss reporting many prior negative changes exhibited less psychiatric distress along with greater pleasantness when instructed to engage in 12 activities rather than 2 or none. Results suggest that pleasant activities increase positive aspects of well-being in general, but may reduce distress only for people experiencing considerable life stress. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adult age differences in the inhibition of recall as a function of retrieval cues.

Asked 64 Ss from 3 age ranges (18–37, 50–64, and 65–88 yrs) to look at word lists in which the words were either categorized under headings or additionally subcategorized. Ss were then asked to recall the words when (a) the category name was given, or (b) the category name and half of the list words were given. Words recalled decreased with increasing age in all conditions. The youngest age group recalled more words when the category name only was used as a recall cue. There were no significant differences between the 2 recall conditions for the other age groups, suggesting that they were not as susceptible to recall inhibition as the younger adults. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnosis, task-motivating instructions, and learning performance.

40 Ss, including 30 who had been previously rated as suggestible and 10 as nonsuggestible, were pretested and then retested on equivalent forms of 3 learning tasks: digit symbol substitution, memory for words, and abstract reasoning. All Ss received the pretests in the same way. The 30 suggestible Ss were retested under 1 of the following 3 experimental treatments with 10 Ss assigned at random to each treatment: task-motivating instructions, hypnotic induction procedure with task-motivating instructions, and control. The 10 nonsuggestible Ss were retested under a task-motivating-instructions treatment. Analyses of covariance indicated that (a) task-motivating instructions given alone or following a hypnotic induction procedure did not significantly affect performance on the memory for words or abstract reasoning tasks; and (b) task-motivating instructions produced a comparable enhancement of performance on the digit symbol substitution task in hypnotized and nonhypnotized Ss and in suggestible and nonsuggestible Ss. (33 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recognition memory, sleep and circadian rhythms.

Examined the effects of sleep on memory. In Exp 1, 43 Ss learned a list of words and were tested for recognition 24 hrs later. For the delayed sleep group, learning was followed by a period of wakefulness; for the immediate sleep group, it was followed by a period of sleep. Retention was significantly better for the immediate sleep group. In Exp 2, 69 Ss were tested approximately 8 hrs after learning. The normal waking group learned and was tested after a period of daytime wakefulness; the normal sleep group learned and was tested after a period of nighttime sleep; and the sleep deprivation group learned and was tested after a period of nighttime wakefulness. In agreement with previous work (e.g., J. G. Jenkins and K. M. Dallenbach, 1924), retention for the normal sleep group was superior to that of the normal waking group; however, retention was not better for the normal sleep group than for the sleep deprivation group. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some characteristics of posthypnotic amnesia.

This experiment investigated (a) the differences in post-hypnotic amnesic characteristics of Ss with high and low hypnotic susceptibility and (b) the extent of the amnesia. The experimental Ss were presented 6 words under hypnosis with instructions for amnesia. The simulation Ss pretended they were hypnotized and received the words with instructions for posthypnotic amnesia. The control Ss were given the words with instructions only to remember them. Recognition, recall, and associative tests, administered immediately after, assessed the amnesia. Posthypnotic amnesia impaired recall and recognition among the experimental Ss, but did not reduce the availability of the words as associative responses. The simulating Ss overplayed their amnesic role and also showed impaired performance on the associative tests. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of sensory restriction on susceptibility to hypnosis: A hypothesis and more preliminary data.

Randomly assigned 45 young adult white male prisoners to 1 of 3 groups of equal size. Experimental Ss (Groups 2 and 3) were exposed to 1 hr. of sensory restriction. Ss in Group 2 were given a set of neutral instructions prior to sensory restriction, and Ss in Group 3 were given a set of nonneutral instructions. Controls (Group 1) were exposed to conditions similar to experimentals, but without sensory restriction per se. All Ss were tested before and after the above procedures with the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale. On posttesting, experimental Ss appeared to have increased in hypnotizability. (47 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of instructional set and need for social approval on commonality of word association responses.

This study investigated the effect of various instructional sets (speed, relaxed time instructions, and "set popular" instructions) on commonality of word associations. Findings were generally supportive of the hypotheses: significantly more common associations were given under speed as compared to relaxed instructions, Ss were able to significantly increase their commonality scores under a set to give popular responses, and need for social approval was differentially related to commonality under relaxed but not under speed instructions. Contrary to a suggestion of Jenkins, social sensitivity (as reflected in the need for approval measure) was not related to the ability to increase one's commonality score under "set popular" instructions. (17 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of oral deprivation on responses to subliminal and supraliminal verbal food stimuli.

The effect of 2 kinds of oral deprivation on reactions to a subliminal and supraliminal food stimulus was investigated. Varying hours of food deprivation (1-5 or more) constituted the 1st independent variable; smoking frequency constituted the 2nd. Different groups of Ss were exposed to a word list preceded by: (a) no stimulus, (b) the subliminal stimulus CHEESE, and (c) the supraliminal stimulus CHEESE. The stimulus word was associatively linked to 10 of the words on the recall list. Relative recall of stimulus-related associates was a function of hours of deprivation in the subliminal and supraliminal conditions, and a function of smoking frequency in the subliminal condition. Other nutritional and oral variables were also investigated. (21 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Externalization in perceptual defense.

2 group of Ss (male undergraduate psychology students) were selected on the degree to which they tend to externalize or internalize responsibility for actions (as measured by a specially developed scale). Ss were asked to respond to tachistoscopically presented stimulus words, shown under varying conditions of illumination and under 2 experimental conditions (defined by instructions identifying the words as having been abstracted from one of 2 kinds of conversations: an impersonal source, participating in research on patterns of language; vs. sailor, delinquents, and college failures). Differential reactivity was noted only when the set was for obscenity, violence, and failure; under these conditions, externalizers showed greater group mean consistency in threshold for disagreeable words, i.e., they neither reacted with sensitization (low) or inhibition (high) thresholds; not so with internalizers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Repression and hypnotic amnesia: A failure to replicate and an alternative formulation.

In an attempt to replicate and extend a study by S. R. Clemes (see record 1965-02178-001), 2 groups of 10 undergraduate hypnotic Ss learned a list of 18 words and were given an amnesia suggestion telling them they would be able to remember only 10 of these words. Half of the list words were critical (i.e., considered to be related to repressed conflictual material) and half were neutral (unrelated to conflictual material) as determined by Ss' responses to a word association test. Experimental Ss received their own critical and neutral words and yoked control Ss received the critical and neutral words of experimental Ss. Neither the experimental nor the yoked control group exhibited selective amnesia in favor of critical words, thus constituting a failure to replicate Clemes's result. However, variables affecting the degree to which words were initially learned (e.g., imagery value, serial position) predicted their resistance to amnesia. These findings are inconsistent with a repression hypothesis but congruent with an inattention hypothesis of suggested amnesia. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anxiety and the next-in-line effect.

Studied the relationship between anxiety and the next-in-line effect in recall. Within each of 2 groups of 24 male and female university students, half the group took turns in reading a single word until an entire list of words had been read, and the other half merely listened. On a 2nd list of words the role of Ss was reversed. Compared to the listen control condition, the recall of Ss in the read condition was poorest for words read a short time before their own performance. This next-in-line effect was no greater for Ss classified on the basis of the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale as being highly anxious than for low-anxiety Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age differences in judging the frequency of events.

80 Ss in 2 age groups, 18–30 and 60–75 yrs, saw a list of words that varied in number of presentations (1, 3, or 5) and level of background language frequency (high, medium, or low). Immediately or after a 20-min retention interval, Ss judged the presentation frequency of the study list words. Older Ss were less accurate in their frequency judgments than young Ss. The age difference was present on the immediate test and was not due to greater difficulty in discriminating presentation frequency from background frequency in the older group. The results are not consistent with the hypothesis that frequency judgment is unaffected by developmental changes. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of intentionality and strategy on memory for frequency.

Several studies have examined whether Ss who learn a list of words incidentally remember frequency as well as those who learn the words intentionally. Conflicting results have been found. This discrepancy is examined in the present 3 experiments with a total of 105 undergraduates. Results of Exps I and II indicate that intentional-learning Ss exhibited an advantage in memory for frequency only if the instructions emphasized the importance of good performance on the memory task. Results of Exp III show that intentionality influenced memory for frequency within a list of items and that a strategy that involved semantic processing led to improved frequency estimation. It is concluded that these results are inconsistent with formulations of the claim that frequency information is encoded automatically and demonstrate that instructions play a crucial mediating role in memory for frequency. (55 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnotically induced limb anesthesia and adaptation to displacing prisms: A failure to confirm.

Tested 3 groups of 10 undergraduates for accuracy of pointing at a visual target before and after wearing displacing prisms. One group consisted of highly susceptible Ss given a hypnotic suggestion for limb anesthesia following the pretest, and a 2nd group included low susceptible Ss instructed to fake limb anesthesia. A control group unselected on susceptibility received no special instructions. The high susceptibles reported significantly greater felt anesthesia than Ss in the other 2 treatments. Nevertheless, Ss in all 3 groups showed very large displacement errors (i.e., errors in pointing) following prism removal. Results fail to confirm reports that placement errors were eliminated by hypnotic suggestion in highly susceptible Ss. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An illusion of memory: False recognition influenced by unconscious perception.

The results of two experiments showed that an illusion of memory can be produced by unconscious perception. In a first phase of those experiments, a long list of words was presented for study. For the test of recognition memory given in the second phase of each experiment, presentation of a "context" word preceded that of most recognition test words. Ss were to judge whether or not the test words had been presented during the earlier study phase of the experiment. Effects of a context word on this recognition memory decision were opposite when Ss were aware vs. unaware of its presentation. For example, as compared to a condition in which no context word was presented, the probability of false recognition was increased when Ss were unaware but decreased when Ss were aware of the presentation of a context word that matched the recognition test word. Results are discussed in terms of unconscious influences on an attribution process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A new look at vigilance and defense.

2 hypotheses were tested: (a) "Threatening tachistocopic stimuli are recognized at thresholds both higher and lower than thresholds for matched control words. The extent of deviation is related to degree of anxiety induced by the threat"; and (b) "When the associated anxiety is removed, then threshold deviations diminish. The degree of reduction is related to the decrease in anxiety." 22 adults of mixed sexes served as Ss. 2 matched lists of words were presented in an anagram-solving exercise. One list was constructed to produce failure. When all words were presented tachistoscopically for a second time, it was found that anxiety aroused by the failure correlated significantly with the absolute difference between recognition thresholds for failure and control words. This relationship persisted even after the artificial nature of the anxiety had been explained. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Drugs and placebos: The effects of instructions upon performance and mood under amphetamine sulfate and chloral hydrate.

The experiment reports the effects of appropriate and inappropriate instructions and 2 drugs (.5 g chloral hydrate and 10 mg racemic amphetamine sulphate) on motor performance and mood measures. The Ss were 90 older men randomly assigned to 9 experimental groups. The design used was expansion of a model design involving Drug Disguised groups, Placebo groups (300 mg lactose), an Untreated group, and Amphetamine, Chloral Hydrate, and Neutral instructions. The drugs and placebos were given to the Ss in capsules, and all Ss received orange juice, which was also the vehicle for the disguise. The Untreated group received orange juice only. Instructions alone affected performance, but had little or no effect on mood. Instructions appropriate to the presumed drug effects produced performance deterioration on the simple motor tasks used. Instructions inappropriate to the presumed drug effects counteracted much of the drug produced decrement. A slight decrement in performance was found in the Placebo group which received Amphetamine instruction. Amphetamine treated Ss produced reports of greater comfort on the mood index than did chloral hydrate. On the other hand, the chloral hydrate instructions resulted in greater comfort than the Amphetamine instructions. There was no interaction between drug effects and instructional effects. The 2 Placebo groups did not differ significantly on the mood index. The effects of instructions on mood were found only when the drug was present. Several suggestions are offered for further research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Suggested amnesia and disorganized recall in hypnotic and task-motivated subjects.

Submitted 52 undergraduates to task motivation or hypnotic treatment. Ss were then given an amnesia suggestion for a previously learned list of categorized words. The number of words recalled and the extent to which they were recalled in clusters were compared before, during, and after lifting the amnesia suggestion. Results show that more hypnotic Ss than task-motivated Ss showed amnesia. Furthermore, hypnotic Ss, but not task-motivated Ss, showed less clustering during the suggestion than they did before or after the suggestion. The Ss who showed at least partial failure to recall during the suggestion were classified into 3 groups: (a) those who remembered but did not verbalize the words, (b) those who experienced amnesia as an effortful process involving distraction or forceful suppression, and (c) those who simply relaxed and experienced amnesia as an effortless process. A theoretical model is tentatively advanced to account for these data. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnotic amnesia and temporal organization: Effects of learning set, stimulus type, number of presentations, and hypnotic susceptibility.

Examined the effects of learning set, type of critical material, number of list presentations, and hypnotic susceptibility on the relationship between hypnotic amnesia and seriation in 3 experiments with 268 undergraduates. In Study 1, the critical stimuli were hypnotic test suggestions, and Ss were exposed to either an incidental or intentional learning set. Study 2 again manipulated learning set, but words served as the critical stimuli. Study 3 involved single vs multiple word list presentations prior to amnesia testing. No evidence for an amnesia-specific breakdown in seriation was obtained, and no consistent relationship between hypnotic susceptibility and changes in organization across recall trials emerged. Findings suggest that learning set, stimulus materials, and number of presentations could not account for the discrepant results obtained with the susceptibility scale and word list paradigms. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)