Post-crack (or post-peak) flexural response and toughness of fiber reinforced concrete after exposure to high temperature

Several studies have already reported on the various effects of high temperature on the mechanical properties of fiber reinforced concrete (FRC). Some of these effects include changes in; compressive strength, compression toughness and splitting tensile strength. None of the previous studies have investigated the changes that might occur on the post-crack flexural response and flexural toughness. Post-crack (or peak) response and toughness is considered one of FRC’s key beneficial characteristics – as the purpose of adding fibers is to increase the energy absorption and load carrying capacity after an initial crack. In this study, the flexural toughness test according to ASTM C1018 was carried out on two types of concrete: plain concrete and fiber reinforced concrete with three different types of fiber (steel, polypropylene, and polyethylene) at 0.5% and 1.0% by volume fractions. Prior to the flexural test, the specimens were put in an oven chamber and subjected to high temperatures using the ISO/TR834 standards of: 400 °C, 600 °C and 800 °C. The results showed the typical load–deflection response of FRC was a double-peak response. The first peak represented the properties of concrete matrix and the second peak represented the properties of the fibers used. Under flexural load, instead of dropping (or remaining unchanged), the post-peak load and the toughness were found to increase at lower temperatures (400 °C) and later, decreased as the temperature increased (600 °C and 800 °C). Fiber type and content also played an important role. At a temperature of 400 °C, all FRCs exhibited higher flexural strength and increased post-peak response and toughness. A significant decrease in strength, toughness and load–deflection response was observed with synthetic or plastic FRC (PFRC) when the temperature approached 800 °C. When steel FRC (SFRC) was used, those effects were relatively small. It appears, SFRC has better heat resistance than the PFRC. The density (measured by ultrasonic pulse velocity) was found to decrease more in the PFRC than in the SFRC.     

Performance of an alkali-activated slag concrete reinforced with steel fibers

This study investigated mechanical and permeability properties at early ages of an alkali-activated slag concrete (AASC) reinforced with steel fibers. The compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strengths, flexural notch sensitivity, pull-out and water absorption properties were evaluated. Test results reveal a reduction of AASC compressive strengths with fiber incorporations. However, splitting tensile and flexural strengths were largely improved with increasing fiber volume, varying from 3.75 to 4.64 MPa and from 6.40 to 8.86 MPa at 28 days of curing, respectively. The properties related to durability performance as water absorption, capillarity and water resistance penetration were enhanced with the steel fibers addition. The results show the enormous potential of AASC as building material with and without steel fiber reinforcement.     

High strength characteristics of cement mortar reinforced with hybrid fibres

An experimental study was conducted on high strength mortar reinforced with steel fibres and hybrid fibres consisting of steel fibre, palm fibre and synthetic fibre (Barchip). The inclusion of fibres was maintained at a volumetric fraction of 2%. The compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, static modulus of elasticity, shrinkage, flexural strength, and flexural toughness were determined to study the effect of the hybrid fibres on the properties of high strength cement mortar (HSCM). The results showed that hybridization of fibres in the quantities 1.5% steel fibres + 0.25% palm fibres + 0.25% Barchip fibres, improved the compressive strength and flexural toughness significantly, and also enhanced the splitting tensile strength and flexural strength of the mortar by about 44% and 140%, respectively.     

Parameter optimization on compressive strength of steel fiber reinforced high strength concrete

This paper illustrates parameter optimization of compressive strength of steel fiber reinforced high strength concrete (SFRHSC) by statistical design and analysis of experiments. Among several factors affecting the compressive strength, five parameters that maximize all of the responses have been chosen as the most important ones as age of testing, binder type, binder amount, curing type and steel fiber volume fraction. Taguchi analysis techniques have been used to evaluate L₂₇ (3¹³) Taguchi’s orthogonal array experimental design results. Signal to noise ratio transformation and ANOVA have been applied to the results of experiments in Taguchi analysis. The confirmation runs were conducted for the optimal parameter level combination, which is obtained from the results of the above methodologies. The maximum compressive strength has been observed as around 124 MPa. By using the optimal parameter level combination, the direct tensile strength and flexural strength tests have been conducted. The mean values at the age of 28 days are obtained as 7.5 MPa and 13 MPa respectively. In this study, it is clearly demonstrated that all main factors except steel fiber significantly contribute to the compressive strength of steel fiber reinforced high strength concrete, yet age and binder type are the most significant contributors.     

Repair of heat-damaged reinforced concrete slabs using fibrous composite materials

Sixteen under-reinforced high strength concrete one-way slabs were cast, heated at 600 °C for 2 h, repaired, and then tested under four-point loading to investigate the coupling effect of water recuring and repairing with advance composite materials on increasing the flexural capacity of heat-damaged slabs. The composites used included high strength fiber reinforced concrete layers; and carbon and glass fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP and GFRP) sheets. Upon heating then cooling, the reinforced concrete (RC) slabs experienced extensive map cracking, and upward cambering without spalling. Recuring the heat-damaged slabs for 28 days allowed recovering the original stiffness without achieving the original load carrying capacity. Other slabs, recured then repaired with steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) layers, regained from 79% to 84% of the original load capacity with a corresponding increase in stiffness from 382% to 503%, whereas those recured then repaired with CFRP and GFRP sheets, regained up to 158% and 125% of the original load capacity with a corresponding increase in stiffness of up to 319% and 197%, respectively. Control, heat-damaged, and water recured slabs showed a typical flexural failure mode with very fine and well distributed hairline cracks, propagated from the repair layers to concrete compression zone. RC slabs repaired with SFRC layers failed in flexural through a single crack, propagated throughout the compression zone, whereas those repaired with CFRP and GFRP experience yielding failure of steel prior to the composites failure.     

Strengths and flexural strain of CRC specimens at low temperature

Crumb rubber concrete (CRC) is made by adding rubber crumbs into conventional concrete. This study undertakes an experimental study on the cubic compressive strength, axial compressive strength, flexural strength and splitting tensile strength of CRC specimens at both ambient temperature 20 °C and low temperature ?25 °C. The flexural stress–strain responses were also recorded. The averaged size of rubber crumbs used in the study is about 1.5 mm. Four levels of rubber contents are investigated, which are 0%, 5%, 10% and 15% by volume, respectively. The mix design aimed at 40 MPa of compressive strength and 100 mm of slump for all the CRC specimens. The results show that CRC increases its magnitude in strengths when temperature decreases, which is similar to the case of conventional concrete, but still exhibits ductility in low temperature. The conclusion from this study is that CRC may be more beneficial in its application in low temperature environments than in ambient temperature environments.     

Permeability of high-performance concrete subjected to elevated temperature (600 °C)

Permeability is one of the most important parameters to quantify the durability of high-performance concrete. Permeability is closely related with the spalling phenomenon in concrete at elevated temperature. This parameter is commonly measured on non-thermally damaged specimens. This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation carried out to study the effect of elevated temperature on the permeability of high-performance concrete. For this purpose, three types of concrete mixtures were prepared: (i) control high-performance concrete; (ii) high-performance concrete incorporating polypropylene fibres; and (iii) high-performance concrete made with lightweight aggregates. A heating–cooling cycle was applied on 160 × 320 mm, 110 × 220 mm, and 150 × 300 mm cylindrical specimens. The maximum test temperature was kept as either 200 or 600 °C. After the thermal treatment, 65 mm thick slices were cut from each cylinder and dried prior to being subjected to permeability test. Results of thermal gradients in the concrete specimens during the heating–cooling cycles, compressive strength, and splitting tensile strength of concrete mixtures are also presented here. A relationship between the thermal damage indicators and permeability is presented.     

Experimental and finite element analysis on the steel fiber-reinforced concrete (SFRC) beams ultimate behavior

Steel fiber-added reinforced concrete (SFRC) applications have become widespread in areas such as higher upper layers, tunnel shells, concrete sewer pipes, and slabs of large industrial buildings. Usage of SFRC in load-carrying members of buildings having conventional reinforced concrete (RC) frames is also gaining popularity recently because of its positive contribution to both energy absorption capacity and concrete strength.This paper presents experimental and finite element analysis of three SFRC beams. For this purpose, three SFRC beams with 250 × 350 × 2000 mm dimensions are produced using a concrete class of C20 with 30 kg/m³ dosage of steel fibers and steel class S420 with shear stirrups. SFRC beams are subjected to bending by a four-point loading setup in certified beam-loading frame, exactly after having been moist-cured for 28 days. The tests are with control of loads. The beams are loaded until they are broken and the loadings are stopped when the tensile steel bars are broken into two pieces. Applied loads and mid-section deflections are carefully recorded at every 5 kN load increment from the beginning till the ultimate failure.One of the SFRC beams modeled by using nonlinear material properties adopted from experimental study is analyzed till the ultimate failure cracks by ANSYS. Eight-noded solid brick elements are used to model the concrete. Internal reinforcement is modeled by using 3D spar elements. A quarter of the full beam is taken into account in the modeling process.The results obtained from the finite element and experimental analyses are compared to each other. It is seen from the results that the finite element failure behavior indicates a good agreement with the experimental failure behavior.     

Mechanical properties of natural fibers reinforced sustainable masonry

This research evaluates the physical and mechanical properties of Portland cement masonry blocks reinforced with lechuguilla natural fibers, that were lightened with 2-l bottles of polyethylene terephthalate.A concrete mix was designed for a target compressive strength of 16 MPa at 28 days, and slump of 70 mm. Masonry concrete blocks with dimensions of 730 × 340 × 130 mm were produced for two different fiber lengths (25 and 50 mm) and with fiber contents of 0.25%, 0.50%, 0.75% and 1.0%.Based on the obtained results, it was found that as the aspect ratio decreases the compressive strength increases and that the use of natural fiber (Vf = 0.5–0.75%) improves masonry post-cracking features, showing a ductile behavior and generating a uniform cracking pattern in the longitudinal sides of the blocks.     

Effect of fiber type and content on bleeding of steel fiber reinforced concrete

In general, the addition of fibers in concrete mix significantly improves many of the engineering properties of concrete. On the other hand, steel fibers reduce the workability of concrete. This paper presents the effect of steel-fiber length (aspect ratio) and content on bleeding of steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC). Two different steel fiber types (both is hooked-end) were used at a ratio of 0% (control), 0.3%, 0.64%, 1% and 1.3% by volume. Slump, Ve-Be test, air content and unit weight were determined experimentally. Specimens were poured in the standard moulds and the bleeding water content was measured 30 min, 60 min, 90 min, 120 min, 150 min and 180 min after starting the test. The results indicated that the workability of concrete significantly reduced as the fiber dosage rate increases. This was assessed through standard slump test and Ve-Be consistometer test. The bleeding water content was increased by increase of the fiber volume fraction and fiber aspect ratio according to experimental results. Also, a bleeding coefficient value for SFRC made with and without steel fiber was proposed as a result of this study.     

The effect of polypropylene fibers on the properties of fresh and hardened lightweight self-compacting concrete

This paper evaluates the LECA Lightweight Self-Compacting Concrete (LLSCC) manufactured by Nan-Su, of which the Packing Factor (PF) of its design mixing method has been modified and improved.The study analyzes the impact of polypropylene fibers on LLSCC performance at its fresh condition as well as its mechanical properties at the hardened condition.The evaluation of Fiber Reinforced LLSCC (FR-LLSCC) fluidity has been conducted per the standard of second class rating of JSCE, by three categories of flowability, segregation resistance ability and filling ability of fresh concrete.For the mechanical properties of LLSCC, the study has been conducted as follows: compressive strength with elapsed age, splitting tensile strength, elastic modulus and flexural strength, all of which were measured after the sample being cured for 28 days.When self-compacting concretes were lightened to 75% of their normal weight, their fresh properties are affected immensely.Applying 0.3% volume fractions of polypropylene fiber to the LLSCC resulted in 40% reduction in the slump flow (from 720 mm to 430 mm). In general, the rate of slump flow over Super Plasticizer (SP) volume percentage reduced with the use of polypropylene fibers in the FR-LLSC.Polypropylene fibers did not influence the compressive strength and elastic modulus of LLSCC, however applying these fibers at their maximum percentage volume determined through this study, increased the tensile strength by 14.4% in the splitting tensile strength test, and 10.7% in the flexural strength.     

Preliminary experimental investigation of the fatigue bond behavior of CFRP confined RC beams

This paper presents the results of the first phase of a study on the effect of the confinement provided by transverse carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets on the fatigue bond strength of steel reinforcing bars in concrete beams. Reinforced concrete bond-beams 150 × 250 × 2000 mm were tested. The variables examined were the area of the CFRP sheets (none or one U-wrap CFRP sheet), the reinforcing bar diameter (20 or 25 mm) and the load range applied to the specimens. The results showed that increasing the bar diameter increased the fatigue bond strength for the unwrapped beams. The CFRP sheets increased the bond strength of the bond-beams with 20 mm bars. However, for the beams with 25 mm steel bars the failure mode changed from a bond splitting failure for the unwrapped beams to a diagonal shear failure for the CFRP wrapped beams, and there was little increase in fatigue strength. Finally, the bond failure mechanism for repeated loading is described.     

Effects of steel fiber addition on mechanical properties of concrete and RC beams

C20 and C30 classes of concrete are produced each with addition of Dramix RC-80/0.60-BN type of steel fibers (SFs) at dosages of 0, 30, 60 kg/m³, and their compressive strengths, split tensile strength, moduli of elasticity and toughnesses are measured. Nine reinforced concrete (RC) beams of 300 × 300 × 2000 mm outer dimensions, designed as tension failure and all having the same steel reinforcement, having SFs at dosages of 0, 30, 60 kg/m³ with C20 class concrete, and nine other RC beams of the same peculiarities with C30 class concrete again designed as tension failure and all having the same reinforcement are produced and tested under simple bending. The load versus mid-span deflection relationships of all these RC and steel-fiber-added RC (SFARC) beams under simple bending are recorded. First, the mechanical properties of C20 and C30 classes of concrete with no SFs and with SFs at dosages of 30 and 60 kg/m³ are determined in a comparative way. The flexural behaviours and toughnesses of RC and SFARC beams for C20 and C30 classes of concrete are also determined in a comparative way. The experimentally determined (mid-section load)–(SFs dosage) and (toughness)–(SFs dosage) relationships are given to reveal the quantitative effects of concrete class and SFs dosage on these crucial properties.     

Mechanical properties of normal and high strength concretes subjected to high temperatures and using image analysis to detect bond deteriorations

The effect of high temperatures, up to 250 °C, on mechanical properties of normal and high strength concretes with and without silica fume was investigated, and image analysis was performed on split concrete surfaces to see the change in bond strength between aggregate and mortar. Specimens were heated up to elevated temperatures (50, 100, 150, 200, 250 °C) without loading and then the residual compressive and splitting tensile strength, as well as the static modulus of elasticity of the specimens were determined. For normal strength concrete residual mechanical properties started to decrease at 100 °C, while using silica fume reduced the losses at high temperatures. In terms of percent residual properties, high strength concrete specimens performed better than normal strength concrete specimens for all heating cycles. Image analysis studies on the split surfaces have been utilized to investigate the effect of high temperatures on the bond strength between aggregate and mortar. Image analysis results showed that reduced water–cement ratio and the use of silica fume improved the bond strength at room temperature, and created more stable bonding at elevated temperatures up to 250 °C.     

Improvement of the mechanical properties of glass fibre reinforced plastic waste powder filled concrete

A comprehensive laboratory experiments were conducted to improve the mechanical properties of glass fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) waste powder filled concrete using superplasticiser for widening the scope for GRP waste recycling for different applications. It is imperative to note that the 28 days mean compressive strength of concrete specimens developed with 5–15% GRP waste powder using 2% superplasticiser resulted 70.25 ± 1.43–65.21 ± 0.6 N/mm² which is about 45% higher than that of without the addition of superplasticiser (with GRP waste) and about 11% higher than that of the control concrete (without GRP waste) with 2% superplasticiser. The tensile splitting strength of the concrete showed 4.12 ± 0.05–4.22 ± 0.03 N/mm² with 5–15% GRP waste powder which is also higher than that of the control concrete (3.85 ± 0.02 N/mm²). The drying shrinkage, initial surface absorption and density of GRP waste filled concrete were evaluated and found better than the desirable quality for use in structural and non-structural applications.     

Improvement of residual compressive strength and spalling resistance of high-strength RC columns subjected to fire

This paper investigates the spalling properties of high-strength concrete in order to improve the residual compressive strength and spalling resistance in specimens subjected to 3 h of unloading fire conditions. This study consists of three series of experiments with eighteen different specimens varying in fiber type and content, finishing material and simultaneous fiber content and lateral confinement. They were fabricated to a 300 × 300 × 600 mm mock-up size. Results of the fire test showed that the control concrete was explosive, while the specimens that contained more than 0.1 vol% of polypropylene (PP) and polyvinylalcohol (PVA) fibers were prevented from spalling. One specimen, finished by a fire endurance spray, exhibited even more severe spalling than the control concrete. The specimen containing 0.1 vol% of PP fiber and using a confining metal fabric at the same time, showed the most effective spalling resistance; in particular, the residual compressive strength ratio was even higher than that of the control concrete before the fire test. It was demonstrated that adding fibers in concrete prevented the spalling occurrence and confining metal fabric around the main bars of concrete specimens can secure the strength of structures during the conditions of elevated temperature.     

Multiaxial tensile–compressive strengths and failure criterion of plain high-performance concrete before and after high temperatures

Multiaxial tensile–compressive tests were performed on 100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm cubic specimens of plain high-performance concrete (HPC) at all kinds of stress ratios after exposure to normal and high temperatures of 20, 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600 °C, using a large static–dynamic true triaxial machine. Friction-reducing pads were three layers of plastic membrane with glycerine in-between for the compressive loading plane; the tensile loading planes of concrete samples were processed by attrition machine, and then the samples were glued-up with the loading plate with structural glue. The failure mode characteristic of specimens and the direction of the crack were observed and described, respectively. The three principally static strengths in the corresponding stress state were measured. The influence of the temperatures, stress ratios, and stress states on the triaxial strengths of HPC after exposure to high temperatures were also analyzed respectively. The experimental results showed that the uniaxial compressive strength of plain HPC after exposure to high temperatures does not decrease completely with the increase in temperature, the ratios of the triaxial to its uniaxial compressive strength depend on brittleness–stiffness of HPC after different high temperatures besides the stress states and stress ratios. On this basis, the formula of a new failure criterion with the temperature parameters under multiaxial tensile–compressive stress states for plain HPC is proposed. This study is helpful to reveal the multiaxial mechanical properties of HPC structure enduring high temperatures, and provides the experimental and theory foundations (testing data and correlated formula) for fire-resistant structural design, and for structural safety assessment and maintenance after fire.     

Modeling mechanical performance of lightweight concrete containing silica fume exposed to high temperature using genetic programming

In this study, the mechanical performance of lightweight concrete exposed to high temperature has been modeled using genetic programming. The mixes incorporating 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% silica fumes were prepared. Two different cement contents (400 and 500 kg/m³) were used in this study. After being heated to temperatures of 20 °C, 200 °C, 400 °C and 800 °C, respectively, the compressive and splitting tensile strength of lightweight concrete was tested. Empirical genetic programming based equations for compressive and splitting tensile strength were obtained in terms of temperature (T), cement content (C), silica fume content (SF), pumice aggregate content (A), water/cement ratio (W/C) and super plasticizer content (SP). Proposed genetic programming based equations are observed to be quite accurate as compared to experimental results.     

Influence of mineral additions on the performance of 100% recycled aggregate concrete

A judicious use of resources, by using by-products and waste materials, and a lower environmental impact, by reducing carbon dioxide emission and virgin aggregate extraction, allow to approach sustainable building development. Recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) containing supplementary cementitious materials (SCM), if satisfactory concrete properties are achieved, can be an example of such sustainable construction materials.In this work concrete specimens were manufactured by completely replacing fine and coarse aggregates with recycled aggregates from a rubble recycling plant. Also RAC with fly ash (RA + FA) or silica fume (RA + SF) were studied.Concrete properties were evaluated by means of compressive strength and modulus of elasticity in the first experimental part. In the second experimental part, compressive and tensile splitting strength, dynamic modulus of elasticity, drying shrinkage, reinforcing bond strength, carbonation, chloride penetration were studied. Satisfactory concrete properties can be developed with recycled fine and coarse aggregates with proper selection and proportioning of the concrete materials.     

Placing conditions,mesostructural characteristics and post-cracking response of fibre reinforced self-compacting concretes

The benefits of adding fibres to concrete, evidenced in the post-cracking behaviour, are strongly influenced not only by the type and content of fibres but also by their orientation. The objective of this study is to evaluate the influence of the casting/placing procedure on the post-peak behaviour of fibre reinforced self-compacting concrete, and its relationship with the mesostructural characteristics of the material (type, distribution and orientation of fibres). Three concretes were prepared using two types of steel fibres of different lengths (50 mm and 30 mm) and a structural type polymer fibre. Beams of 150 × 150 × 600 mm were cast in three different ways: filling the moulds from the centre in accordance with the EN 14651 Standard, pouring concrete from one end of the mould after a flowing along a 5 m length and 150 mm diameter pipe, and finally, filling the moulds vertically. Flexural tests according to the European Standard indicate that the three types of fibres achieve a preferential orientation along horizontal planes, like in conventional vibrated fibre reinforced concrete. The mechanical response of beams cast with longer steel fibres was strongly affected by the casting procedure while the flexural performance of the other two fibre concretes, was less affected. Such results are well in accordance with the density of fibres measured by fibre counting in different cut planes.