Mechanical properties of solution-precursor plasma-sprayed thermal barrier coatings

The microstructure of thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) of 7 wt.% Y₂O₃ stabilized ZrO₂ (7YSZ) deposited using the solution-precursor plasma spray (SPPS) method has: (i) controlled porosity, (ii) vertical cracks, and (iii) lack of large-scale “splat” boundaries. An unusual feature of such SPPS TBCs is that they are well-adherent in ultra-thick forms (~ 4 mm thickness), where most other types of ultra-thick ceramic coatings fail spontaneously. Here a quantitative explanation is provided as to why as-deposited ultra-thick SPPS TBCs are so well-adherent. The mode II toughness of thin (0.2 mm) SPPS TBCs has been measured using the “barb” shear test, which is found to be 66 J m^− 2. Residual stresses in SPPS TBCs of thickness 0.2, 1.5, and 4.0 mm have been estimated using a microstructure-based object-oriented finite element (OOF) method. These stresses are found to be low, as a result of the strain-tolerant microstructure of the SPPS TBCs. The corresponding strain energy release rates that drive mode II cracks in the three different thickness SPPS TBCs have been found to be less than the mode II toughness.     

A Study of Ni-5wt.% Al coatings produced from different feedstock powder

Ten different Ni-5wt.%Al powders—three clad, done sintered, three water atomized, and three gas atomized—have been evaluated and plasma sprayed. The study focused on how manufacturing method, chemical composition, and particle size distribution of the powders affect the quality of the coating. Properties such as microstructure and mechanical behavior, as well as oxidation and corrosion resistance, are discussed. In conclusion, recommendations concerning the selection of powders for different applications are presented.     

Failure of Zr61Ti2Cu25Al12 bulk metallic glass under torsional loading

The torsional properties of the Zr₆₁Ti₂Cu₂₅Al₁₂ BMG have been tested using cylinder samples, including the shear yield strength, shear elastic strain limit and shear modulus. Under torsional loading, the BMG fails via a major shear band, without obvious macroscopic plasticity on the specimen surface. The shear band maintained stable propagation by a distance of ∼300 μm (∼20% of cylinder radius) before final catastrophic failure, owing to the constraint of stress gradient along the radial direction. The combined tensile, compressive and torsional properties of the Zr₆₁Ti₂Cu₂₅Al₁₂ BMG suggest that recent ellipse criterion and eccentric ellipse criterion are more appropriate than other well-known ones in describing the yield behavior of this BMG. The cooperative shear model underestimates the shear elastic strain limit, because of its default assumption that the yielding behavior follows the Tresca yield criterion.     

Modified tensile adhesion test for evaluation of interfacial toughness of HVOF sprayed coatings

Tensile adhesion test is widely used to evaluate the adhesion strength of coatings sprayed by High Velocity Oxy-Fuel (HVOF) technique. But there are two issues to be improved. Firstly, when the coatings have high adhesion strength, failure occurs in an adhesive layer, and secondary, the edge of a substrate is heavily deformed and rounded due to the high impact energy of sprayed particles. This deformation causes large scatter of adhesion test results. In this paper, a new technique to evaluate the interfacial fracture toughness has been proposed by introducing pre-crack at the interface of a conventional tensile adhesion test specimen. The asymptotic analytical formula was derived for interfacial toughness evaluation. Numerical analysis was also carried out for comparison. The difference between the numerical and the theoretical data was less than 5%. The developed procedure was applied for the SUS316 L steel coatings and the significant effects of the surface roughness and preheating temperature on adhesion strength were reconfirmed quantitatively.     

Microstructural evolution of 7 wt.% Y2O3-ZrO2 thermal barrier coatings due to stress relaxation at elevated temperatures and the concomitant changes in thermal conductivity

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the combined effect of stress and temperature on the microstructure of air plasma-sprayed 7 wt.% Y₂O₃-ZrO₂ thermal barrier coatings, and relate microstructural changes to the thermal conductivity, k_th. To simulate TBC service conditions, stand-alone tubes of YSZ were stress relaxed, starting from a compressive stress of 60 MPa, at temperatures of 1000 °C or 1200 °C. The duration of the stress relaxation test was either 5 min or 3 h. Detailed scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Porod's specific surface area (SSA) analysis of small angle neutron scattering (SANS) results were used to determine which void systems, either interlamellar pores or intralamellar cracks, contributed to the observed relaxation of stress in the coatings. SEM investigations revealed closure of intralamellar cracks located perpendicular to the stress direction. For thinner YSZ coatings, SANS measurements indicated a statistically significant reduction in the total SSA and SSA associated with intralamellar cracks after stress relaxation at the times, temperatures, and stress investigated compared to those samples that were exposed to identical times and temperatures, but no stress. The SSA associated with the interlamellar pores was not significantly smaller in YSZ coatings stress relaxed from 60 MPa at 1200 °C for 3 h compared to as-sprayed coatings. The thermal conductivity of the coatings was strongly influenced by stress, with increases in k_th observed after only 5 min at 60 MPa and 1200 °C. Reductions in the total SSA were directly linked to increases in k_th.     

Fracture toughness measurements of plasma-sprayed thermal barrier coatings using a modified four-point bending method

In this study, the adhesion strength of thermal barrier coatings 8YSZ (ZrO₂ + 8 wt.% Y₂O₃) deposited on NiCrAlY bond coats by atmospheric plasma spraying is investigated experimentally. A modified four-point bending specimen that can generate a single interface crack to facilitate the control of crack growth was adopted for testing. The fracture surfaces were examined using a scanning electron microscope. Images show that cracks are initiated along YSZ/NiCrAlY interfaces, then kink and grow uniformly within the YSZ layer. The load-displacement curves obtained indicate three distinct stages in crack initiation and stable crack growth. Based on a microstructural model, finite element analyses were performed to extract the bonding strength of the thermal barrier coatings. The fracture toughness of the plasma-sprayed 8YSZ coatings, in terms of critical strain energy release rate G_c, can be reliably obtained from an analytical solution or from a numerical simulation of the cracking process using compliance methods.     

Effect of heat-treatment on stress relaxation behavior of plasma-sprayed 7 wt.% Y2O3-ZrO2 stand-alone coatings

The present work studied the effect of heat-treatment temperature (1000 °C and 1200 °C) and time (10, 50, and 100 h) on the compressive stress relaxation behavior of plasma-sprayed stand-alone 7 wt.% Y₂O₃-ZrO₂ (YSZ) coatings at test temperatures of 1000 °C, 1100 °C, and 1200 °C, from stresses of 60 and 20 MPa. As-sprayed coatings were also stress relaxed in the baseline condition at room and elevated temperatures. All coatings demonstrated a two-stage relaxation behavior: fast relaxation (stage I) in the first 10 min and much slower relaxation in the final 170 min of the test (stage II). Stage I relaxation, as measured by percentage of the original stress relaxed, accounts for at least 50% of the total stress relaxed despite occurring in only 5-10 min and was attributed to lamella sliding and compaction, and permanent intralamellar crack closure (for tests conducted at higher temperatures). Stage II relaxation behavior is dominated by diffusion creep mechanisms, where prior densification at 1200 °C resulted in reduced relaxation rates compared to coatings heat treated at 1000 °C and in the as-sprayed condition. The 1200 °C test temperature greatly influenced the percentage of relaxation in the coating, more so than the prior coating heat-treatment conditions.     

Residual stress in thermal spray coatings measured by curvature based on 3D digital image correlation technique

Residual stress is an important factor in thermally sprayed deposits which affects both processing and performance. High stress can influence the structural integrity of sprayed parts and impair their function. Therefore, it is important to know the stress state, understand its origin and be able to control it. In this paper, three-dimensional digital image correlation as a non-destructive full-field optical measurement method is used to measure the strip curvature on thermal spray coatings given a NiCrCoAlY bonding layer and an yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) layer on 304 stainless steel substrate as an example. The stress profile through thickness can be determined in each step of deposition by finite element method based on an inverse analysis and the stress interpretation of curvature. The individual contribution of quenching and thermal stresses to residual stress is analyzed from temperature evolution during post-deposition cooling. In addition, the multilayer progressing deposition and elastic-plastic model are used for the accurate predictions in the simulations.     

Mechanical properties of thermal barrier coatings after isothermal oxidation.: Depth sensing indentation analysis

Thermal barrier coatings (TBC) are extensively used to protect metallic components in applications where the operating conditions include aggressive environment at high temperatures. Isothermal oxidation degrades the performance of these coatings, so this work analyses the mechanical properties (Young's modulus, E, and hardness, H) of TBC and its evolution after thermal exposure in air. ZrO₂(Y₂O₃) top coat and NiCrAlY bond coating were air plasma sprayed onto an Inconel 600 Ni base alloy. The TBC were isothermally oxidized in air at 950 °C and 1050 °C for 72, 144 and 336 h. Depth sensing indentation tests were carried out on the ceramic coating to evaluate E and H in the as-sprayed materials and after isothermal oxidation. An approach based on multiple tests at different loads was used to determine size independent apparent E an H. These mechanical properties, measured perpendicular to the surface, clearly decreased after isothermal oxidation as a consequence of microcracking within the ceramic coating.     

Arrhenius activation of Zr65Cu18Ni7Al10 bulk metallic glass in the supercooled liquid region

In the current research, the dynamic mechanical spectrum and compressive deformation of Zr₆₅Cu₁₈Ni₇Al₁₀ bulk metallic glass in the supercooled liquid region (SLR) are investigated. The experimental results prove the existence of transition from Newtonian flow to non-Newtonian flow in the metallic glasses. In addition, we found that the characteristic stress σ_tc, which is obtained by a stretched exponential function based on the normalized viscosity, can be regarded as a transition point from Newtonian to non-Newtonian flow. The correlation between strain rate sensitivity exponent and corresponding strain rate was obtained at a certain temperature. It is noted that the variation of transition strain rate from Newtonian to non-Newtonian flow with different absolute temperatures follows the Arrhenius equation. The activation energy is in good accordance with that using the mechanical spectroscopy method.     

Effect of particle size on the microstructure and properties of kinetic sprayed nickel coatings

This study aims to examine the effect of particle size on the microstructure and corresponding properties in kinetic sprayed coatings of commercially pure nickel (CP-Ni) in conjunction with finite element modeling (FEM). Prior to the experiments, the adhesion factors (interface temperature, contact time and contact area), rebound factor (relative recovery energy) and the resultant critical velocities of CP-Ni for different particle sizes and temperatures were estimated by FEM. Based on the simulations, three different sized CP-Ni powders were successfully deposited onto mild steel substrates using a powder preheating system. Here we suggest optimized windows of operation for particle sizes of CP-Ni based on the microstructure and properties of the coatings (i.e. deposition efficiency, bond strength and micro-hardness) which are in good correspondence with the simulation results.     

有限元方法用于涡流电磁场计算的有效性分析

利用有限元方法，对涡流检测中的电磁场问题进行数值计算，有助于涡流检测线圈的优化设计、检测缺陷的识别与定量，从而提高涡流检测的效果与精度。为验证有限元数值计算结果的有效性，对TEAM（Testing Electromagnetic Analysis Methods）组织提出的Workshop问题（Problem 15）进行了求解与分析。利用解析方法计算了空芯线圈的阻抗，然后通过二维有限元模型进行了阻抗求解，对比结果有较好的一致性。针对厚板上裂纹的涡流检测，建立了三维有限元计算模型，对影响计算结果的因素进行了分析，得到了比较好的数值模拟结果。     

Finite element modeling of microstructural changes in dry and cryogenic cutting of Ti6Al4V alloy

This paper presents a customized FE model for describing the microstructural changes during dry and cryogenic cutting of Ti6Al4V. It addresses the importance to modify the material behavior taking into account the microstructural changes and the cooling/lubrication effects during the cutting process. With this aim, a user subroutine is implemented in the FE code to describe the surface and subsurface modifications taking place during the cutting process and to implement them in order to properly modify the material flow stress. Thus, the material flow stress is continuously updated during the simulation according to the new microstructure characteristics. The proposed FE model is calibrated and validated by comparison with experimental results.     

On TGO creep and the initiation of a class of fatigue cracks in thermal barrier coatings

The initiation of a class of fatigue cracks observed in thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) subjected to thermal gradient mechanical fatigue testing is investigated. The coating system is based on a NiCoCrAlY bond coat and a partially yttria stabilized zirconia top coat. To explain the development of the cracks of interest, the thermo-mechanical response of the bond coat and the thermally grown oxide (TGO) is examined and quantified through finite element analyses. The models include non-linear and time-dependent behavior such as creep, TGO growth stress, and thermo-mechanical cyclic loading. The simulations suggest that stress-redistribution due to creep can lead to tensile stresses in the TGO during TGMF testing that are large enough to initiate the cracks investigated.     

Determination of paper stiffness and anisotropy from recorded bending waves in paper subjected to tensile forces

Experiments and theory for bending wave propagation of paper sheets in tension are presented. An all-electronic pulsed TV holography technique is used to record the bending wave field initiated by a laser pulse. A theory for bending wave propagation in tensile-loaded paper is developed. The bending waves are influenced by mechanical properties such as density, thickness, bending stiffness, anisotropy and also by tensile forces in the paper. The paper stiffnesses are determined by matching the measured deformation field with the calculated theoretical field. The results show that the bending wave pattern is strongly influenced by the tensile force. For a non-destructive on-line measurement of, e.g. stiffnesses and anisotropy in the paper machine the tensile force must be considered.     

Stress analysis of high temperature ZrO2 insulation coatings on Ag using finite element method

The aim of this study is to investigate residual stresses occurred during cooling procedure of ZrO₂ insulation coating on Ag substrate for magnet technologies. ZrO₂ coatings were produced on Ag tape substrate by using a reel-to-reel sol–gel technique. SEM inspection showed that ZrO₂ coatings had mosaic structures. ANSYS finite element software was used to calculate the temperature and stress distribution of the ZrO₂/Ag structure. The effect of coating thickness on residual stresses was also examined. The results obtained showed that thermal stresses in ZrO₂ coating and Ag substrate were considerably affected by the cooling time and coating thickness. It is concluded the thermal stresses increase with increase of film thickness.     

Mechanical, thermal and physical coupling methods in FE analysis of metal forming processes

The thermal and mechanical equations for large deformations occuring in metal forming processes are recalled. The finite element approaches for viscoplastic or for elastic viscoplastic materials are presented briefly. The coupling of the previous equations with those describing the evolution of physical internal parameters is analysed. A compact form of the physical and mechanical equation is used to consider any time integration method. The micro-macro approach is an alternate way to introduce physical phenomena. This methodology is illustrated with the problem of texture evolution during forming of anisotropic materials. Finally the feasability of the inverse method for various types of coupling is investigated, with application to the computation of parameters defining the mechanical, thermal and physical behaviour of the material.     

Experimental and finite element simulation study of the adiabatic shear band phenomenon in cold heading process

This paper presents the outcomes of a comprehensive experimental, metallurgical and finite element (FE) simulation study to characterize the development of adiabatic shear band (ASB) phenomenon in steel cold heading (CH) process. The main objective of this work is to investigate the complex interplay of different process and material parameters on the ASB development stages inside the cold headed parts.In this work, the drop weight compression test (DWCT) was selected to simulate the CH process impact loads on specimens machined from 1038 steel and 1018 steel. Series of DWCTs were performed under different impact loading conditions. The goal of these tests is to achieve different deformation levels and introduce ASBs at different stages.To reach a full understanding of this complex phenomenon, the FE simulation analysis was used to support the metallurgical examination of the DWCT specimens. The FE analysis provided important details about the changes of different material and process parameters at the critical zones inside the ASBs.This study confirmed that the ASB is mainly a thermo-mechanically controlled phenomenon. The ASBs develop in three stages: homogeneous plastic strain, inhomogeneous plastic strain, and strain localization. The ASB development stage depends mainly on the status of the competition between the work hardening and the thermal and geometrical softening mechanisms inside the bands. The domination of the softening mechanisms at advanced levels of deformation triggers a self-catalytic strain localization and material strength degradation process that leads to failure inside the band.In general, the metallurgical and finite element analysis investigation revealed that under impact loads, three ASBs can develop simultaneously inside the cold headed parts; lower, upper and central ASBs. As the deformation continues; the development of the lower and upper bands slows down and contributes in the rapid development of the adjacent central ASB. This study confirmed that the ASB has a canonical structure which leads to an ASB that can experience different development stages along the same band simultaneously.This study proved that the shape and the type of ASBs in cold headed parts depend highly on material's properties. The metallurgical and finite element analysis revealed that the higher the strength of the tested steel, the easier to form a narrow ASB that reaches the localization stage at low deformation levels. In contrast, ductile steels experience wider ASBs when subjected to the same deformation levels. These bands require higher levels of deformation to reach the localization stage in comparison to higher strength steels.     

Finite element simulations of deformation behavior in equal channel angular pressing using a rotated die

A new die design for equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) of square cross-section billet was proposed by a 45 rotation of the inlet and outlet channels around the channel axes. ECAP utilizing the rotated and conventional dies was simulated in three dimensions using the finite element method. Conditions with different material properties and friction coefficients were studied. The billet deformation behavior was evaluated in terms of the spatial distribution of equivalent plastic strain, plastic deformation zone and load history. The results show that the rotated die appears to produce billets with a smaller deformation inhomogeneity over the entire crosssection and a greater average of equivalent plastic strain at the cost of a slightly larger working load. The billet deformation enters into a steady state earlier in the case of the rotated die than the conventional die under the condition of a relatively large friction coefficient.