Children's competence and value beliefs from childhood through adolescence: Growth trajectories in two male-sex-typed domains.

The purpose of this study was to document gender differences in children's competence and value beliefs (N =514) from the 1st through 12th grades and to investigate the relation of these trends to initial differences in parents' perceptions of children's ability. Six separate growth models were tested: math competence, math interest, math importance, sports competence, sports interest, and sports importance. Across all 6 models, children's self-perceptions declined from 1st grade to 12th grade. Gender differences in competence and value beliefs were found. The gap between boys' and girls' competence beliefs decreased over time. In addition, parents' initial ratings of children's ability helped to explain mean level differences and variations in the rate of change in children's beliefs over time, with the effect being strongest in the sports models. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The impact of mothers' gender-role stereotypic beliefs on mothers' and children's ability perceptions.

Examined the relation between mothers' gender stereotypic beliefs, their perceptions of their children's abilities, and their children's self-perceptions in 3 activity domains. Approximately 1,500 mothers and their 11- to 12-yr-old children responded to questions about the children's abilities in the math, sports, and social domains. It was predicted that mothers' beliefs about their children would be moderated by their gender stereotypic beliefs about the abilities of female and male people in general. As predicted, path analyses revealed that mothers' gender stereotypic beliefs interact with the sex of their child to influence their perceptions of the child's abilities. Mothers' perceptions, in turn, mediate the influence of past performance on children's self-perceptions in each domain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Structure of peer impressions of children's competence: Validation of the peer nomination of multiple competencies.

A peer-nomination assessment of 5 domains of children's competencies (scholastic competence, social acceptance, athletic competence, physical attractiveness, and behavioral conduct) was administered to 1,249 elementary school students (aged 9–12 yrs). Factor analysis revealed 2 positive factors and 2 negative factors. The negative factors differed notably in content from girls to boys. Evidence of convergent validity was derived from the regression of these factors onto teachers' ratings and children's self-reports. Evidence of construct validity emerged from regressions between these factors and self-reported depression, hopelessness, loneliness, and misbehavior. Results revealed the structure of peers' perceptions of children's competence and justified the use of the Peer Nomination of Multiple Competencies to complement self-report, teacher rating, standardized test, and behavioral observation measures of children's competence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's early approaches to learning and academic trajectories through fifth grade.

Children's early approaches to learning (ATL) enhance their adaptation to the demands they experience with the start of formal schooling. The current study uses individual growth modeling to investigate whether children's early ATL, which includes persistence, emotion regulation, and attentiveness, explain individual differences in their academic trajectories during elementary school. Using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study – Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K), the present investigation examined the association between ATL at kindergarten entry and trajectories of reading and math achievement across 6 waves of data from kindergarten, 1st, 3rd, and 5th grade (n = 10,666). The current study found a positive link between early ATL and individual trajectories of reading and math performance. Overall, children's early ATL was equally beneficial for children regardless of their race/ethnicity and dimensions of their socioeconomic background. However, links between early ATL and academic trajectories differed by their gender and initial levels of math and reading achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A longitudinal study of children's depressive symptoms, self-perceptions, and cognitive distortions about the self.

This longitudinal study examined how depressive symptoms relate to children's self-perceptions and to estimates of children's cognitive distortions about the self in a nonclinical sample of children who were followed from 4th grade (n=248) through 6th grade (n=227). Report card grades measured children's academic competence, and teachers' ratings of children's level of peer acceptance at school indicated social acceptance. Self-reported depressive symptoms predicted a change in children's negative views of the self. Moreover, the self-perceptions of children who exhibited more symptoms of depression appeared to reflect an underestimation of their actual competence. Children's negative self-perceptions and underestimations about the self were not associated with a subsequent change in depressive symptoms. The implications of the findings for cognitive theories of depression and future research with this population are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parents' responses to the emotional distress of their children: Relations with children's competence.

Although investigators have proposed in various theories that the socialization of emotions has important implications for children's general competence, very little empirical data exist. In the present study, parents' responses to the emotional distress of their preschool children were examined in the context of more general dimensions of parenting (warmth and control), and the relation of these responses to children's competence was assessed. Data on parent–child interactions were collected for 30 families, using home observations, parent self-reports, observer ratings, and child interviews. Children's competence in preschool was assessed by teacher ratings. Effective, situationally appropriate action was the most frequently observed parental response to children's upset, and children's attributions to parents of such pragmatic responses was positively related to their competence in preschool. Parental encouragement of emotional expressiveness was also positively associated with child competence. Variables assessing positive responses to upset, although related to warmth (as expected), also contributed independently to children's competence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Family influences on school achievement in low-income, African American children.

The authors examined the achievement-related beliefs and behaviors of parents of economically disadvantaged African American youth, and the relations among parental factors and children's academic self-concept and achievement. Forty-one children and their primary caregivers were interviewed. Parents reported on their academic-related beliefs and behaviors. Children completed measures of academic self-concept and 2 standardized achievement tests: 1 during the summer and 1 at the end of the following school year. Significant and positive relations were found between parental belief and behavior measures within the domains of reading and math; however, parental beliefs were more strongly linked with child outcomes than were parents' achievement-oriented behaviors. The relation between parental beliefs and child outcomes was not mediated by children's academic self-concept. Results are discussed in light of models of family influences on achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ability self-concepts and subjective value in literacy: Joint trajectories from grades 1 through 12.

Because literacy skills are critical for most academic subject matters, researchers have become increasingly interested in understanding children's motivation in this domain as a way to increase academic success. In this study, we extend previous work by looking at the heterogeneity of children's motivational changes in literacy across Grades 1–12. We used a cross-sequential design based on 3 different cohorts of children (N = 655) coming from 10 public elementary schools. Data were collected over an 8-year period (1988–1996) starting when children were in 1st, 2nd, and 4th grades. Using multiple-process growth mixture modeling, we identified 7 groups of children showing distinct trajectories of change in literacy subjective task value and ability self-concept across school years. For all children, ability self-concept and subjective task value decreased between Grade 1 and Grade 12; however, this decline was more apparent for some youths than for others. Our findings suggest the importance of school-based interventions that aim to prevent decreases in student motivation for literacy over time and that focus on the early detection of children at risk for dramatic declines. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive development and reading: The relation of reading-specific multiple classification skill to reading comprehension in elementary school children.

Cognitive flexibility, the ability to consider multiple aspects of stimuli simultaneously, develops over the elementary school years and can be measured with a multiple classification task. Although prior research indicates a significant relation between domain-general multiple classification skill (e.g., classifying objects by shape and color simultaneously) and reading, a precise relation between these abilities has not been found. A reading-specific multiple classification task was designed that required children to classify printed words along phonological and semantic dimensions simultaneously. Reading-specific multiple classification skill made a unique contribution to children's reading comprehension over the contributions made by children's age, domain-general multiple classification skill, decoding skill, and verbal ability. Additionally, training in reading-specific multiple classification facilitated children's reading comprehension. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of verbal and mathematics task performance on task and career self-efficacy and interest.

To test a hypothesis from self-efficacy theory, we randomly assigned 149 subjects to verbal or mathematics and success or failure conditions in which they attempted to solve easy or difficult anagram or number series tasks. Changes in task self-efficacy and task interest as a result of task success or failure were in accordance with predictions from self-efficacy theory. We also examined the generalizability of the effects of task performance. The results indicated that task performance effects generalized to self-efficacy and interest ratings on an irrelevant task and to global ratings of math and verbal ability. Task performance effects did not generalize to career self-efficacy and career interest measures but consistent gender differences in self-efficacy emerged as a result of both math and verbal task performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teachers' beliefs about former Head Start and non-Head Start first-grade children's motivation, performance, and future educational prospects.

The authors examined 33 first grade teachers' beliefs about their pupils' ability, effort, and interest in different academic tasks, making friends, and sports; how much education teachers thought children could and actually would achieve; and their expectations for children's next year's grades. Eighty-three of the children were former Head Start participants, and 55 were not. Teachers' beliefs and expected grades for the children were least positive in the academic areas. Teachers thought the children were capable of achieving a significantly higher level of education than they thought children actually would achieve. Teachers' beliefs about the former Head Start and non-Head Start children were similar, but teachers' beliefs did significantly differ by the children's ethnicity. Teachers' beliefs predicted children's test performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's Beliefs About Parental Divorce Scale: Psychometric characteristics and concurrent validity.

This study evaluated the psychometric characteristics of the Children's Beliefs About Parental Divorce Scale with three nonclinic samples (N?=?170; mean age?=?11.06 years). The findings revealed evidence of six subscales (Peer Ridicule and Avoidance, Paternal Blame, Fear of Abandonment, Maternal Blame, Hope of Reunification, and Self-Blame); moderate item-total correlations and Cronbach alphas within each scale; and moderate 9-week test-retest reliability. The number of problematic beliefs varied by family structure but generally not by age, gender, or length of parental separation. When age was controlled for, children with many problematic beliefs were found to be anxious, to have poor self-concepts in areas related to parents, and to report little social support. However, total problematic beliefs were unrelated to parents' and teachers' ratings of children's internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. Findings are discussed in terms of models of children's divorce adjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Task values and ability beliefs as predictors of high school literacy choices: A developmental analysis.

This study examines how competence beliefs and task values predict high school achievement choices related to literacy. Students' task beliefs (self-concept of ability, intrinsic value, and importance) about reading in the 4th grade and English in the 10th grade were tracked over time. Task beliefs, school performance, and gender were used to predict students' (a) time per week spent reading for pleasure in 10th grade, (b) number of language arts courses per year of high school, and (c) reading relatedness of 12th-grade career aspirations. Results indicated that ability beliefs positively predicted all 3 outcomes, importance predicted career aspirations and course choices, and intrinsic value predicted leisure time reading and high school courses. Gender differences were also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Masculinity and femininity in children: Development of the Children's Personal Attributes Questionnaire.

Achildren's version of the Personal Attributes Questionnaire was developed and employed with 89 elementary school children. This instrument, which has long and short forms, assesses masculinity (instrumentality) and femininity (socioemotional orientation) on separate unipolar dimensions and also contains a bipolar Femininity–Masculinity scale. Equivalence of the children's forms with the long and short adult forms was demonstrated. In addition to psychometric data, evidence for the construct validity of the children's instrument is presented. Children's self-ratings correlated positively with parents' ratings. Gender differences agreed with expectations. The proportions of children of 4 gender-role types were similar to those reported among high school students who used the adult form; Correlations with intellectual ability were not strong. Children's positive self-concept was associated with more masculine responding. Longitudinal analyses showed differential change in directions consistent with the social desirability of masculine and feminine attributes. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Competence and self-esteem during transition from childhood to adolescence.

Change and stability in competence and self-esteem of fifth- and sixth-grade boys and girls were examined across a 1-year period, in which approximately one half of the children made the transition from elementary to secondary school (transition groups) and the other half continued in the same school (nontransition groups). Beginning at the end of the school year before transition, the Perceived Competence Scale for Children and the Teacher's Rating Scale of Child's Actual Competence were administered at 6-mo intervals. There was no notable transition effect either early or late in the new school year. Overall, children's perceived competence increased and was stable across the 1-year period. Teacher ratings also reflected competence gains for children in nontransition groups; but for children in transition groups they were substantially lower in secondary than in elementary school. The results indicate that entry into secondary school represents significant change from elementary school, but that most children negotiate the transition without undue difficulty. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When Teachers' and Parents' Values Differ: Teachers' Ratings of Academic Competence in Children From Low-Income Families.

The authors examined predictors of teachers' ratings of academic competence of 105 kindergarten children from low-income families. Teachers rated target children's expected competence in literacy and math and completed questions about their perceptions of congruence-dissonance between themselves and the child's parents regarding education-related values. Independent examiners assessed children's literacy and math skills. Teachers' instructional styles were observed and rated along dimensions of curriculum-centered and student-centered practices. Controlling for children's skills and socioeconomic status, teachers rated children as less competent when they perceived value differences with parents. These patterns were stronger for teachers who exhibited curriculum-centered, rather than student-centered, practices. The findings suggest a mechanism by which some children from low-income families enter a path of diminished expectations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relations of children's motivation for reading to the amount and breadth or their reading.

The authors explored different aspects of children's reading motivation and how children's motivation related to the amount and breadth of their reading. The reading motives assessed included self-efficacy, intrinsic–extrinsic motivation and goals, and social aspects. Fourth- and 5th-grade children (N?=?105) completed a new reading motivation questionnaire twice during a school year. Children's reading amount and breadth were measured using diaries and questionnaires. Children's reading motivation was found to be multidimensional. Their motivation predicted children's reading amount and breadth even when previous amount and breadth were controlled. An intrinsic motivation composite predicted amount and breadth of reading more strongly than did an extrinsic motivation composite. Some aspects of girls' reading motivation were more positive than boys'. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correspondences among parent, teacher, and student perceptions of adolescents' learning disabilities

A group of 26 adolescents with learning disabilities (Grades 9 through 12), their parents, and their special education teachers were asked to rate the students' skills in each of 21 specific areas covering general ability, oral language, reading, written language, math, study skills, motivation, social skills, attention, and nonverbal skills. Correspondences in the absolute and relative ratings of parents, teachers, and students across the 21 skill areas were examined. The parents' ratings were consistent with those of the teachers in 16 areas and significantly lower than the teachers in 5 areas. The students' ratings were generally higher than those of their parents and teachers. The student-teacher differences were significant in 6 areas, whereas the student-parent differences were significant in 11 areas. Although generally lower in absolute terms than the ratings of their children, the parents' relative ratings were strikingly parallel to their children's ratings across skill areas (r = 80). Differences in the reference groups used for the ratings did not seem to account for the discrepant ratings. Possible implications of the differing perceptions of students' learning disabilities for students' self-esteem and academic progress are discussed.     

The efficacy of using music in children of divorce groups: Impact on anxiety, depression, and irrational beliefs about divorce.

This study examined the efficacy of a children of divorce group using music as an intervention in comparison to a more traditional psychoeducational children of divorce group. It was predicted that children of divorce groups that utilized music would have a significantly greater impact on the children's levels of anxiety, depression, and irrational beliefs about divorce after the group ended and at a 3-month follow-up assessment. Both interventions significantly decreased cognitive and social anxiety and all irrational beliefs about divorce, except hope of reunification. Depression did not decrease for all participants but when the relationship between depression and irrational beliefs was examined, irrational beliefs were found to be mediators of depression for children of divorce. These results suggest that current interventions for children of divorce do decrease anxiety and irrational beliefs in general, but specifically addressing irrational beliefs may also decrease depressive symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Responses to an organizational reward: A field test of the sufficiency of justification hypothesis.

Examined the impact of an extrinsic reward provided by employers (educational subsidies) on the task interest of employees who varied in their reasons for attending an evening master of business administration (MBA) program (expressive and instrumental orientations) and their beliefs about the reward (norms for payment). Results from 132 employed MBA students (mean age 29.2 yrs) show that the sufficiency of justification effects hypothesized varied depending on Ss' orientation toward the activity and beliefs about the reward. Providing an educational subsidy was associated with lowered task interest for those who were expressively oriented but was associated with higher task interest for Ss who were not expressively oriented. Failure to provide an extrinsic reward was related to decreased task interest for those who believed the subsidy was a normal employee benefit but was related to increased interest for those who did not. Findings are consistent with laboratory investigations and suggest the importance of the sufficiency of justification research for organizational reward systems. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)