Maternal depressive symptoms and depressive symptoms in adolescents

The relationship between maternal depressive symptoms and rates of adolescent (15-16 years) depressive symptoms was studied in a birth cohort of 934 New Zealand children. There was a clear correlation between maternal depressive symptoms and subsequent depressive symptoms in adolescent females (r = .44) but no association (r = -.01) between maternal depressive symptoms and depressive symptoms in adolescent males. Subsequent analysis suggested that the correlation between maternal depression and depressive symptoms in adolescent females was largely explained by the associations of both measures with a series of social and contextual factors including social disadvantage, marital discord and family adversity. It is concluded that maternal depression is only associated with depression in adolescence insofar as maternal depression is associated with social disadvantage, marital discord or family adversity.     

The unique effect of paternal depressive symptoms on adolescent functioning: Associations with gender and father–adolescent relationship closeness.

Prospective, longitudinal data from a community sample of 451 families were used to assess the unique contribution of paternal depressive symptoms to adolescent functioning. Results indicated that paternal depressive symptoms were significantly related to subsequent depressive symptoms in adolescent offspring; this association remained significant after controlling for previous adolescent depressive symptoms, maternal depressive symptoms, gender, and family demographic variables. Adolescent gender and perception of father–adolescent relationship closeness moderated this association such that paternal depressive symptoms were positively associated with adolescent depressive symptoms for girls whose relations with fathers lacked closeness. These findings add to a growing literature on the interpersonal mechanisms through which depression runs in families, highlighting the need for future investigation of paternal mental health, adolescent gender, and intrafamily relationship quality in relation to adolescent development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The association between adolescents’ depressive symptoms, maternal negative affect, and family relationships in Hong Kong: Cross-sectional and longitudinal findings.

This study investigated the bidirectional relationships of adolescents’ and maternal mood, and the moderating effect by gender and perceived family relationships on these relationships. Data were obtained from 626 adolescent-mother dyads and follow-up data were collected one year later from a subset. Adolescents reported their depressive symptoms, and their mothers reported their negative affect. Adolescents described their perception of family relationships. Maternal negative affect and adolescents’ depressive symptoms were significantly correlated at baseline. This association was moderated by gender and family relationships. The association was stronger in mother-daughter compared to mother-son dyads. In families where relationships were reported to be poor, adolescent depressive symptoms were uniformly high, regardless of maternal negative affect. However, in families where relationships were good, maternal negative affect was associated with higher adolescents’ depressive symptoms. In longitudinal analyses, adolescents’ mood at baseline was found to relate to maternal negative affect at follow-up. Family relationships at baseline were also associated with adolescents’ depressive symptoms at follow-up. However, there was no prediction from maternal negative affect at baseline to adolescents’ depressive symptoms at follow-up. Gender and quality of family relationships did not moderate the longitudinal relationships between adolescents’ depressive symptoms and maternal negative affect in either direction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parent–child acculturation, parenting, and adolescent depressive symptoms in Chinese immigrant families.

Using a sample of 388 father–adolescent and 399 mother–adolescent dyads in Chinese immigrant families, the current investigation tested Portes and Rumbaut’s (1996) assertion that generational dissonance may indicate a family context that places children at increased risk for adverse outcomes. Study findings suggest that a high discrepancy in father–adolescent acculturation levels relates significantly to more adolescent depressive symptoms. The study further demonstrates that the quality of the parenting relationship between fathers and adolescents operates as a mediator between father–adolescent acculturation discrepancy and adolescent depressive symptoms. Specifically, a high level of discrepancy in American orientation between fathers and adolescents is associated with unsupportive parenting practices, which, in turn, are linked to more adolescent depressive symptoms. These relationships are significant even after controlling for the influence of family socioeconomic status and parents’ and adolescents’ sense of discrimination within the larger society. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parenting behaviors and the occurrence and co-occurrence of adolescent depressive symptoms and conduct problems.

This study of 388 adolescents found a significant covariation between the elevated depressive symptoms and conduct problems. Observer ratings of family interaction indicate that (a) parents of 10th graders with and without later adjustment problems differed in their parenting behaviors when the adolescents were in 7th, 8th, and 9th grades; (b) parents of 10th graders with elevated conduct problems were more hostile than parents of 10th graders with elevated depressive symptoms when the adolescents were in 7th, 8th, and 9th grades; (c) parents of 10th graders with both elevated depressive symptoms and conduct problems were the most hostile and the least warm when these adolescents were in 7th, 8th, and 9th grades. Observed parenting behaviors predicted the occurrence and co-occurrence of these adjustment problems among 10th graders after controlling for 7th grade (Time 1) depressive symptoms and delinquent behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Tightly linked systems: Reciprocal relations between maternal depressive symptoms and maternal reports of adolescent externalizing behavior.

The frequently observed link between maternal depressive symptoms and heightened maternal reporting of adolescent externalizing behavior was examined from an integrative, systems perspective using a community sample of 180 adolescents, their mothers, fathers, and close peers, assessed twice over a 3-year period. Consistent with this perspective, the maternal depression–adolescent externalizing link was found to reflect not simply maternal reporting biases, but heightened maternal sensitivity to independently observable teen misbehavior as well as long-term, predictive links between maternal symptoms and teen behavior. Maternal depressive symptoms predicted relative increases over time in teen externalizing behavior. Child effects were also found, however, in which teen externalizing behavior predicted future relative increases in maternal depressive symptoms. Findings are interpreted as revealing a tightly linked behavioral-affective system in families with mothers experiencing depressive symptoms and teens engaged in externalizing behavior and further suggest that research on depressive symptoms in women with adolescent offspring should now consider offspring externalizing behaviors as a significant risk factor. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adolescent Girls' Interpersonal Vulnerability to Depressive Symptoms: A Longitudinal Examination of Reassurance-Seeking and Peer Relationships.

A transactional, interpersonal framework involving adolescents' reassurance-seeking and peer experiences may be useful for understanding the emergence of gender differences in depression prevalence during the adolescent transition. Sociometric nominations of peer acceptance/rejection and ratings of friendship quality provided by adolescents and their friends were used to measure peer experiences among 6th-8th-grade adolescents (N = 520) over 3 annual time points. After controlling for age and pubertal development, significant but small prospective effects offered mixed support for hypotheses: (a) depressive symptoms and negative peer relations predicted increasing levels of girls' reassurance-seeking; (b) initial levels of reassurance-seeking and depressive symptoms predicted deteriorating friendship quality among girls and low friendship stability, respectively; and (c) reassurance-seeking combined with poor peer experiences predicted increases in girls' depressive symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Biomechanical analysis of nonreamed tibial intramedullary nailing after simulated transverse fracture and fibulectomy

PURPOSE: To examine differences between early adolescent girls' and their mothers' perceptions of girls' depressive symptoms. METHODS: 313 daughter-mother dyads completed the Children's Depression Inventory. RESULTS: Low to modest agreement was found for most symptoms, although higher agreement was found for symptoms relating to school performance. The hypothesis that girls would report more ideational symptoms and mothers more behavioral symptoms of depression was tested; girls generally reported more ideational and behavioral symptoms when differences occurred. However, several specific ideational symptoms (feeling like crying; feeling sad; guilt; worrying) tended to be more frequently endorsed by girls and had particularly poor daughter-mother agreement. Examining third variables associated with daughter-mother agreement, girls scoring high on social desirability tended to have smaller daughter-minus-mother difference scores for ideational, but not for behavioral items; therefore, social desirability may be associated with girls underreporting ideational symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Mothers appear to be reliable raters of symptoms related to school functioning, but may be less aware of certain covert depressive symptoms in their early adolescent daughters.     

Caretaking behaviors by adolescent children of mothers with and without a history of depression.

In a sample of 72 mothers with and without a history of depression and their adolescent children, maternal depression history, current maternal depressive symptoms, intrusive and withdrawn parental behavior, and adolescent caretaking behaviors were examined as predictors of adjustment in these youth. Two types of caretaking behaviors were examined: emotional (e.g., caring for a parent's emotional distress) and instrumental (e.g., looking after younger siblings). Although adolescents of mothers with and without a history of depression were comparable on levels of both types of caretaking, caretaking was associated with adolescents' reports of anxiety–depression and mothers' reports of social competence only for adolescents of mothers with a history of depression. Moreover, regression models showed that among children of mothers with a history of depression, emotional, but not instrumental, caretaking was related to adolescents' anxiety–depression symptoms and social competence after controlling for current parental depressive symptoms and stressful parenting behaviors. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression, family environment, and adolescent suicidal behavior

OBJECTIVE: To assess the specific influence of family relationship difficulties, over and above the effect of depression, on the risk of adolescent suicidal behavior. METHOD: The study was based on the clinical data summaries, "item sheets," of children and adolescents who attended the Maudsley Hospital during the 1970s and 1980s. Two hundred eighty-four cases of suicidal behavior, defined as suicidal ideas, attempts, or threats (mean age 13.9 years, SD 2.6), were compared with 3,054 nonsuicidal controls, using stepwise logistic regression controlling for age and sex. RESULTS: The following variables were each independently associated with suicidal behavior: an operationally defined depressive syndrome, odds ratio (OR) = 4.4 (95% CI 3.1 to 6.3); family discord, OR = 1.5 (95% CI 1.1 to 2.0); disturbed mother-child relationship, OR = 1.5 (95% CI 1.1 to 2.0); and familial lack of warmth, OR = 1.6 (95% CI 1.1 to 2.3). Twenty-seven percent of the suicidal cases met operational criteria for depression. In a separate analysis of nondepressed cases (n = 198), female gender, OR = 2.4 (95% CI 1.7 to 3.2), and conduct symptoms, OR = 1.4 (95% CI 1.02 to 1.95), were independent risk factors for suicidal behavior. Among the depressed cases (n = 73), gender and conduct symptoms did not affect the risk of suicidal behavior. CONCLUSIONS: Although depression is the largest single risk factor for teenage suicidal behavior, family relationship difficulties make a significant independent contribution to this risk. Depression also interacts with gender, so that the excess risk of suicidal behavior in females is confined to nondepressed cases.     

Prospective associations between marital discord and depressive symptoms in middle-aged and older adults.

Data from both spouses in a population-based sample of middle-aged and older adults (N = 1,869 couples) were used to evaluate the 2-year prospective association between marital discord and depressive symptoms. Nested path analyses indicated that (a) baseline marital discord predicted one's own depressive symptoms at follow-up, (b) baseline depressive symptoms predicted one's own marital discord at follow-up, (c) baseline depressive symptoms predicted partners' marital discord at follow-up, and (d) there were no gender differences in the magnitudes of the pathways between one's own baseline depressive symptoms and one's own marital discord at follow-up or between one's own baseline marital discord and one's own depressive symptoms at follow-up. These results suggest a bidirectional longitudinal association between marital discord and depressive symptoms in middle-aged and older adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parental divorce during early adolescence in Caucasian families: The role of family process variables in predicting the long-term consequences for early adult psychosocial adjustment.

The relationship between parental divorce occurring during adolescence and young adult psychosocial adjustment was examined, as was the role of family process variables in clarifying this relationship. Participants were young Caucasian adults from divorced (n?=?119) and married (n?=?123) families. Assessments were conducted during adolescence and 6 years later during early adulthood. Young adults from married families reported more secure romantic attachments than those from divorced families; however, differences were not evident in other domains of psychosocial adjustment after demographic variables were controlled. Three family process variables (parent–adolescent relationship, interparental conflict, and maternal depressive symptoms) were examined as potential mediators and moderators of the association between parental divorce and young adult adjustment. No evidence supporting mediation or moderation was found; however, the parent–adolescent and parent–young adult relationships, particularly when the identified parent was the father, emerged as significant predictors of young adult psychosocial adjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in the longitudinal relations among family risk factors and childhood externalizing symptoms.

Despite potential sex differences in base rates, predictors, and maintaining processes for children's externalizing behaviors, little prospective research has examined sex differences in the relations between concurrent, proximal family risk factors and children's externalizing behaviors. The current study examined the relations among maternal depressive symptoms, maternal parenting behaviors (i.e., negativity and low warmth), and child externalizing symptoms at 24 months and first grade in a community-based sample of 1,364 children enrolled in the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. Structural equation modeling revealed that maternal depression and negative parental behaviors were associated with concurrent externalizing behaviors, though maternal depression may be differentially linked to boys' and girls' externalizing problems. The relation between depression and boys' externalizing symptoms was more pronounced at 24 months, and over time, the relation between maternal depression and boys' externalizing symptoms decreased in magnitude, whereas this relation increased among girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A latent class analysis of maternal depressive symptoms over 12 years and offspring adjustment in adolescence.

The authors used data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development to model patterns of maternal depressive symptoms, from the period of infants’ age 1 month to adolescence (age 12 years), and then examined adolescent adjustment at age 15 years as a function of the course and severity of maternal symptoms. The authors identified 5 latent classes of symptoms in 1,357 women, while also taking into account sociodemographic measures: never depressed, stable subclinical, early decreasing, moderately elevated, and chronic. Women with few symptoms were more likely to be married, better educated, and in better physical health than were women with more elevated symptoms. At age 15 years, adolescents whose mothers were in the chronic, elevated, and stable subclinical latent classes reported more internalizing and externalizing problems and acknowledged engaging in more risky behavior than did children of never depressed mothers. Latent class differences in self-reported loneliness and dysphoria were also found. Discussion focuses on adolescent adjustment, especially among offspring whose mothers reported stable symptoms of depression across their childhoods. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Quality of mother–toddler interactions, maternal depressive symptoms, and behavior problems in preschoolers of adolescent mothers.

Longitudinal data for 63 inner-city African American and Puerto Rican adolescent mothers and their firstborn children were used to examine the relations among (a) level of maternal depressive symptoms reported in the first year postpartum and at 28 to 36 months postpartum, (b) mother-toddler conflict and contingent (reciprocal) responses observed in play interactions at 20 months, and (c) maternal reports of child problem behaviors at 28 to 36 months. The model that best predicted child problem behaviors was an additive one, reflecting the independent contributions of maternal depressive symptoms and maternal-child conflict. A lack of contingent responses occurred more frequently in the interactions of more symptomatic mothers with their toddlers. Although this was not associated with subsequent levels of child problem behaviors, the implications of this passive response strategy for the perpetuation of depression in families are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental trajectories of adolescents' depressive symptoms: Predictors of change.

in a sample of 240 adolescents assessed annually in Grades 6 through 11, the developmental trajectories of their depressive symptoms were examined using latent factor growth modeling. Growth in mother-reported adolest.ent depressive symptoms was quadratic; growth in adolescent-reported symptoms was linear. In the model with gender and maternal depression, girls reported a greater increase in depressive symptoms over time than boys, and adolescents of mothers with histories of mood disorders had higher initial levels of depressive symptoms than offspring of never-depressed mothers. After gender and maternal depression were controlled, initial levels of negative attributions and stressors significantly predicted initial levels of adolescent- and mother-reported depressive symptoms. Attributional styles that were increasingly negative across time were associated with significantly higher initial levels (mother reported) and increasing growth (adolescent reported) of depressive symptoms. Reciprocal models in which development of depressive symptoms predicted the development of attributions and stress also were examined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depleted parental psychological resources as mediators of the association of income with adherence and metabolic control.

For adolescents with Type 1 diabetes, lower family income may be associated with poorer diabetes management through depleted parental psychological resources (i.e., higher parental depressive symptoms, lower parental acceptance). Adolescents (N = 252; 46% male) aged 10–14 years with Type 1 diabetes assessed the acceptance of their mother and father (e.g., “gives me the feeling that she likes me as I am”; “she doesn't feel she has to make me over into someone else”). Mothers provided information on family income and demographics. Both mothers and fathers reported their depressive symptoms. HbA1c scores were indexed via medical records. Lower family income was associated with higher (i.e., worse) HbA1c, more mother and father depressive symptoms, and less acceptance from both parents. Mediation analyses revealed that the relationship of lower family income with metabolic control occurred indirectly through lower maternal and paternal acceptance and lower adherence. Lower family income may impair the quality of parent—adolescent relationships that are beneficial for good diabetes management. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trajectories of emotional well-being in mothers of adolescents and adults with autism.

Raising an adolescent or adult child with a developmental disability confers exceptional caregiving challenges on parents. We examined trajectories of 2 indicators of emotional well-being (depressive symptoms and anxiety) in a sample of primarily Caucasian mothers (N = 379; M age = 51.22 years at Time 1) of adolescent and adult children with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD; M age = 21.91 years at Time 1, 73.2% male). We also investigated within-person associations of child context time-varying covariates (autism symptoms, behavior problems, residential status) and maternal context time-varying covariates (social support network size and stressful family events) with the trajectories of emotional well-being. Data were collected on 5 occasions across a 10-year period. Average patterns of stable (depressive symptoms) and improved (anxiety) emotional well-being were evident, and well-being trajectories were sensitive to fluctuations in both child and maternal context variables. On occasions when behavior problems were higher, depressive symptoms and anxiety were higher. On occasions after which the grown child moved out of the family home, anxiety was lower. Anxiety was higher on occasions when social support networks were smaller and when more stressful life events were experienced. These results have implications for midlife and aging families of children with an ASD and those who provide services to these families. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stress and anxious-depressed symptoms among adolescents: Searching for mechanisms of risk.

This study was an examination of the possible mechanisms of risk among adolescents (n?=?55) exposed to the stress associated with the diagnosis of cancer in a parent. Girls whose mothers had cancer reported significantly more anxious-depressed symptoms than girls whose fathers were ill or boys whose mothers or fathers had cancer. Increased family responsibilities and the use of ruminative coping were examined as possible mechanisms leading to increased distress in girls with ill mothers. Although girls reported the use of more ruminative coping, rumination did not account for the impact of maternal cancer on girls' distress. Girls whose mothers were ill reported more stressful events reflecting family responsibilities. Furthermore, family responsibility stress fully accounted for the interaction of gender of the ill parent and gender of the adolescent in predicting anxious-depressed symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reciprocal relationships between parent and adolescent internalizing symptoms.

Previous investigations of the association between parent and adolescent internalizing problems have been largely restricted to the unidirectional effect of parent symptoms on their children. This study therefore aimed to investigate potential reciprocal relationships between parent and adolescent internalizing symptoms. One-hundred and seventy-seven adolescents ages 14 to 18 years and their parents (172 mothers, 124 fathers) completed measures of depressive and anxiety symptoms at two time points, 6 months apart. Results supported reciprocity between maternal and adolescent internalizing symptoms but not between paternal and adolescent internalizing symptoms. In addition, the relationship between maternal symptoms and later adolescent symptoms was found to be partially mediated by maternal parenting self-esteem. The study highlights the potential impact of adolescent internalizing problems on maternal well-being, a phenomenon previously neglected in the literature. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)