Tightly linked systems: Reciprocal relations between maternal depressive symptoms and maternal reports of adolescent externalizing behavior.

The frequently observed link between maternal depressive symptoms and heightened maternal reporting of adolescent externalizing behavior was examined from an integrative, systems perspective using a community sample of 180 adolescents, their mothers, fathers, and close peers, assessed twice over a 3-year period. Consistent with this perspective, the maternal depression–adolescent externalizing link was found to reflect not simply maternal reporting biases, but heightened maternal sensitivity to independently observable teen misbehavior as well as long-term, predictive links between maternal symptoms and teen behavior. Maternal depressive symptoms predicted relative increases over time in teen externalizing behavior. Child effects were also found, however, in which teen externalizing behavior predicted future relative increases in maternal depressive symptoms. Findings are interpreted as revealing a tightly linked behavioral-affective system in families with mothers experiencing depressive symptoms and teens engaged in externalizing behavior and further suggest that research on depressive symptoms in women with adolescent offspring should now consider offspring externalizing behaviors as a significant risk factor. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prospective associations between marital discord and depressive symptoms in middle-aged and older adults.

Data from both spouses in a population-based sample of middle-aged and older adults (N = 1,869 couples) were used to evaluate the 2-year prospective association between marital discord and depressive symptoms. Nested path analyses indicated that (a) baseline marital discord predicted one's own depressive symptoms at follow-up, (b) baseline depressive symptoms predicted one's own marital discord at follow-up, (c) baseline depressive symptoms predicted partners' marital discord at follow-up, and (d) there were no gender differences in the magnitudes of the pathways between one's own baseline depressive symptoms and one's own marital discord at follow-up or between one's own baseline marital discord and one's own depressive symptoms at follow-up. These results suggest a bidirectional longitudinal association between marital discord and depressive symptoms in middle-aged and older adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relationship between maternal problem-solving style and adolescent social adjustment.

Examined the relationship between social functioning in adolescents and their mothers' conflict-handling style, categorized according to 5 conflict-handling styles identified by M. A. Rahim (see record 1983-27060-001). 89 adolescents (aged 11–17 yrs) and their mothers participated. Mothers completed a measure assessing their style of handling conflict, mothers and fathers completed measures of the adolescents' social functioning, and behavioral observations of the mothers and adolescents were conducted. Results indicate that mothers who scored high on the integrating style (a style using exchange of information and examination of differences to come to a mutually acceptable, often creative, solution) measure had adolescents who were better socially adjusted according to mother, father, and behavioral observation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Family cohesion, family adaptability, social support, and adolescent depressive symptoms in outpatient clinic families.

The relationships among adolescent depressive symptoms and self-reported family cohesion, adaptability, satisfaction with family functioning, family structure, and social support received from family and friends were investigated in a sample of 93 families attending family therapy at an outpatient clinic. Results were in keeping with previous studies of nonclinical samples, in that family cohesion and family social support were inversely related to depression. In contrast to nonclinical samples, family characteristics were more strongly associated with depression among boys than among girls, and social support from friends did not act as a buffer against depression. The strongest predictor of depressive symptoms was adolescents' levels of satisfaction with the cohesiveness and adaptability in their families, suggesting the importance of subjective cognitive appraisal in the link between family functioning and depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Quality of mother–toddler interactions, maternal depressive symptoms, and behavior problems in preschoolers of adolescent mothers.

Longitudinal data for 63 inner-city African American and Puerto Rican adolescent mothers and their firstborn children were used to examine the relations among (a) level of maternal depressive symptoms reported in the first year postpartum and at 28 to 36 months postpartum, (b) mother-toddler conflict and contingent (reciprocal) responses observed in play interactions at 20 months, and (c) maternal reports of child problem behaviors at 28 to 36 months. The model that best predicted child problem behaviors was an additive one, reflecting the independent contributions of maternal depressive symptoms and maternal-child conflict. A lack of contingent responses occurred more frequently in the interactions of more symptomatic mothers with their toddlers. Although this was not associated with subsequent levels of child problem behaviors, the implications of this passive response strategy for the perpetuation of depression in families are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Schizophrenic symptoms, work adjustment, and behavioral family therapy.

Investigated work adjustment among 41 recently exacerbated patients (aged 21–42 yrs) with schizophrenia who were randomly assigned to receive either customary care alone or behavioral family therapy (BFT) and customary care. At baseline, most Ss were unemployed and evidenced poor work adjustment. Negative schizophrenic symptoms were more strongly associated with current work dysfunction than were indices of other psychopathology. At 1 yr, significantly fewer Ss participating in BFT had evidenced psychotic exacerbations. However, vocational adjustment in both groups was still poor, with few benefits of BFT on work functioning noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A latent class analysis of maternal depressive symptoms over 12 years and offspring adjustment in adolescence.

The authors used data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development to model patterns of maternal depressive symptoms, from the period of infants’ age 1 month to adolescence (age 12 years), and then examined adolescent adjustment at age 15 years as a function of the course and severity of maternal symptoms. The authors identified 5 latent classes of symptoms in 1,357 women, while also taking into account sociodemographic measures: never depressed, stable subclinical, early decreasing, moderately elevated, and chronic. Women with few symptoms were more likely to be married, better educated, and in better physical health than were women with more elevated symptoms. At age 15 years, adolescents whose mothers were in the chronic, elevated, and stable subclinical latent classes reported more internalizing and externalizing problems and acknowledged engaging in more risky behavior than did children of never depressed mothers. Latent class differences in self-reported loneliness and dysphoria were also found. Discussion focuses on adolescent adjustment, especially among offspring whose mothers reported stable symptoms of depression across their childhoods. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms, maternal sensitivity, and children's functioning at school entry.

Using data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, the authors modeled trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms from infant age 1 month to 7 years. The authors identified 6 trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms: high-chronic, moderate-increasing, high-decreasing, intermittent, moderate-stable, and low-stable. Women on these depression trajectories varied in sociodemographic risk and in changes in observed maternal sensitivity over time. Maternal sensitivity was generally higher and increased when depressive symptoms were low; sensitivity was lower and decreased when depressive symptoms were either high or increasing. Child outcomes at 1st grade were examined by trajectory group. The authors discuss the complexity of disentangling maternal symptoms from maternal sensitivity and sociodemographic risk when predicting children's functioning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Chronicity of maternal depressive symptoms, maternal sensitivity, and child functioning at 36 months.

Women (N?=?1,215) and their infants were followed from birth, and maternal reports of depressive symptoms were obtained at 1, 6, 15, 24, and 36 months. Women who never reported symptoms of depression were compared with those who reported symptoms sometimes or chronically. Women with chronic symptoms of depression were the least sensitive when observed playing with their children from infancy through 36 months. Children whose mothers reported feeling depressed performed more poorly on measures of cognitive-linguistic functioning and were rated as less cooperative and more problematic at 36 months. Depression-group differences in school readiness and verbal comprehension were accounted for by maternal sensitivity. Depression-group differences in expressive language and ratings of cooperation were moderated by maternal sensitivity; maternal sensitivity predicted better outcomes more noticeably among children whose mothers reported feeling depressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between perceptual differences of parenting and adolescent antisocial behavior and depressive symptoms.

The relation between adolescent negative adjustment and differences in parent–child ratings of parents' warmth and negativity was examined with a national sample of 720 families. It was predicted that perceptual differences (PDs) would be linked to more negative adjustment. Adjustment was regressed on PDs, which were calculated as absolute differences between parent and child ratings of parenting. Results showed that PDs were significantly associated with adjustment independent of the level of parenting behavior. Associations differed by gender for PDs over maternal verbal aggression. Some of the most important results were curvilinear effects indicating that both high and low, but not medium, levels of PDs are linked with maladjustment. Finally, differences between younger and older adolescents were found: The linear relationship between PDs over parental negativity and maladjustment disappeared for older adolescents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of adult attachment styles on the association between marital adjustment and depressive symptoms.

This study tested the hypothesis that attachment styles moderate the relationship between marital adjustment and depressive symptoms among husbands and wives. In a sample of 91 married couples, ratings of the anxious-ambivalent attachment style moderated the relationship between marital adjustment and depressive symptoms for both husbands and wives. Additionally, ratings of the secure attachment style moderated the relationship between marital adjustment and depressive symptoms for wives, with a trend for husbands. These findings suggest a relationship between insecurity and a predisposition to depressive symptoms in marital relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parenting practices and adolescent depressive symptoms in Chinese American families.

This study examined parenting practices and adolescent depressive symptoms among Chinese Americans. First, confirmatory factor analyses revealed that self-reported parenting practices by mothers and fathers and adolescent perception of parenting practices loaded adequately on three subscales: Inductive Reasoning, Monitoring, and Harsh Discipline. Second, parents' depressive symptoms were related to disrupted parenting practices, which, in turn, were significantly related to the negative evaluation of these behaviors by the adolescents. Adolescents' perceptions of such parenting practices were significantly associated with their depressive symptoms. Third, the relationships were robust even after parental income, education, and generation status were statistically controlled. Overall, the relationships between parenting practices and adolescent depressive symptoms among Chinese Americans seemed to echo those found among European Americans. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Young adolescent and maternal depression: Assessment, interrelations, and family predictors.

The present study examined (a) the relation between self-report and behavioral ratings of depression for young adolescents and their mothers; (b) the relation between adolescent and maternal depression; and (c) family correlates and predictors of adolescent and maternal depression. Sixty-nine nonclinic adolescents and their mothers completed self-report measures and participated in two behavioral observations 1 year apart. Self-report and behavioral-rating measures of depression were related for mothers but not for adolescents, and maternal depression and adolescent depression were not related to one another. In addition, marital conflict predicted maternal depression as measured by both self-reports and behavioral ratings, whereas parent–adolescent conflict predicted only self-reported adolescent depression. The differences found between maternal and adolescent depression are discussed, and the findings are contrasted with those reported for clinically depressed mothers and children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of comorbidity in prevention of adolescent depressive symptoms.

Despite the well-known relevance of comorbidity, few studies have examined the impact of comorbid anxiety or externalizing symptoms on the prevention of depressive symptoms in adolescents. To replicate earlier positive effects of a cognitive-behavioral prevention program of depressive symptoms and to test the hypothesis that the prevention program would be less effective in adolescents with comorbid anxiety and externalizing symptoms, the authors conducted a study involving 301 8th-grade students randomly divided into an intervention group and a nonintervention control group. The randomized design included baseline, postintervention, and 6-month follow-up. The prevention program included 10 sessions held in a regular school setting. The prevention program showed positive effects on depressive symptoms independent of comorbid symptoms. These effects were found mainly with girls independent of their depressive symptoms at baseline, and in part with boys with less severe depressive symptoms at baseline. It is surprising that negative effects of the prevention program on depressive symptoms were found on the depression of boys with more severe depressive symptoms at baseline. The prevention program's low rate of attrition and high recruitment rate support the generalizability of the results. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relations among family discord, caregiver communication, and children's family representations.

This study examined associations among family discord, caregiver communication quality about emotionally stressful family events, and child internal representations of family security in 50 preschool children and their primary caregivers. Consistent with risk and protective models, findings indicate that children's representations were predicted by the interaction between family discord and caregiver communication quality. Children exhibiting the highest level of secure representations of the family experienced a consistency between low levels of family discord and communications emphasizing family security. Conversely, incongruency between family experiences and communication, reflected in high levels of family discord and communications underscoring family security, was associated with the lowest level of child secure representations. Results suggest that child representations hinge on the fit between caregiver communication quality and family experience. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping with perceived peer stress: Gender-specific and common pathways to symptoms of psychopathology.

This study investigated gender differences in the moderating and mediating effects of responses to stress on the association between perceived peer stress and symptoms of psychopathology. A sample of 295 middle school students (63.7% female; Mage = 12.39 years, SD = 0.99) completed self-report surveys on stress, coping, and behavioral problems. Involuntary responses to stress (e.g., physiological arousal, intrusive thoughts, impulsive action) mediated the association between perceived stress and anxiety/depression and aggression for girls and for boys. Disengagement coping (e.g., denial, avoidance) partially mediated the association between peer stress and anxiety/depression for boys and for girls. In contrast, disengagement coping mediated the association between peer stress and overt aggression for boys only. Finally, engagement coping (e.g., problem solving, emotion regulation, cognitive restructuring) buffered the indirect effect of peer stress on symptoms of psychopathology for girls only. Implications for prevention and intervention efforts are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal, family, and health-related correlates of depressive symptoms in mothers with HIV.

This study examined longitudinally depressive symptoms in 54 HIV-infected mothers with infants. The contribution of selected personal and family characteristics and health-related factors to depressive symptoms also was explored. Most of the women were single and African American, and most were on public assistance. Data were collected when the infants were approximately 3, 6, and 12 months of age. About a third of the mothers were at risk for depression, as indicated by Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale scores above the cutoff. The best predictors of depressive symptoms were feelings of stigma, self-perceptions of health, and physical symptoms, all factors associated with HIV. The findings have implications for helping HIV-infected mothers with depressive symptoms and stigma related to HIV. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationships between marital distress and child behavior problems, maternal personal adjustment, maternal personality, and maternal parenting behavior.

Examined the relationship of marital adjustment to maternal personal adjustment, maternal personality, maternal perception of child adjustment, maternal parenting behavior, and child behavior using 20 maritally distressed and 20 maritally nondistressed mothers and their children (aged 3–7 yrs). Ss were given a battery of tests that included the Beck Depression Inventory, the Trait form of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the Personality Research Form—Form A. Results indicate that, compared to mothers in the maritally nondistressed group, mothers in the distressed group perceived themselves as significantly more anxious and depressed and perceived their children as having significantly more behavior problems, particularly in the area of undercontrol. There were no differences between the groups with respect to maternal personality. Maritally distressed mothers showed less appropriate parenting behavior than did nondistressed mothers and the children of maritally distressed mothers were more deviant than were children of nondistressed mothers. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pubertal transition, stressful life events, and the emergence of gender differences in adolescent depressive symptoms.

This study examined the role of both pubertal and social transitions in the emergence of gender differences in depressive symptoms during adolescence. This study generated the following findings: (a) Gender differences in depressive symptoms emerged during 8th grade and remained significant through 12th grade. (b) Pubertal status in 7th grade was related to adolescent depressive symptoms over time. (c) Early-maturing girls represented the group with the highest rate of depressive symptoms. (d) Depressive symptoms measured in 7th grade predicted subsequent symptom levels throughout the secondary school years. (e) Recent stressful life events were associated with increased depressive symptoms. (f) Early-maturing girls with higher levels of initial symptoms and more recent stressful life events were most likely to be depressed subsequently. The findings demonstrate the importance of the interaction between the pubertal transition and psychosocial factors in increasing adolescent vulnerability to depressive experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between psychosocial adjustment and perception of maternal attitudes.

Divided a sample of 26 adult male hemophiliacs into 2 groups on the basis of their psychosocial adjustment. The poorly adjusted group rated their mothers as significantly higher in tendencies toward dominating overprotecting, and ignoring their children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)