Relationships between visual landscape preferences and map-based indicators of landscape structure

There is increasing awareness of the need to monitor trends in our constantly changing agricultural landscapes. Monitoring programmes often use remote sensing data and focus on changes in land cover/land use in relation to values such as biodiversity, cultural heritage and recreation. Although a wide range of indicators is in use, landscape aesthetics is a topic that is frequently neglected. Our aim was to determine whether aspects of landscape content and configuration could be used as surrogate measures for visual landscape quality in monitoring programmes based on remote sensing. In this paper, we test whether map-derived indicators of landscape structure from the Norwegian monitoring programme for agricultural landscapes are correlated with visual landscape preferences. Two groups of people participated: (1) locals and (2) non-local students. Using the total dataset, we found significant positive correlations between preferences and spatial metrics, including number of land types, number of patches and land type diversity. In addition, preference scores were high where water was present within the mapped image area, even if the water itself was not visible in the images. When the dataset was split into two groups, we found no significant correlation between the preference scores of the students and locals. Whilst the student group preferred images portraying diverse and heterogeneous landscapes, neither diversity nor heterogeneity was correlated with the preference scores of the locals. We conclude that certain indicators based on spatial structure also have relevance in relation to landscape preferences in agricultural landscapes. However, the finding that different groups of people prefer different types of landscape underlines the need for care when interpreting indicator values.     

Sustainable Landscapes in an Enlarged Europe—the Landscape Research Group/Institute for Landscape Ecology symposium

This study focuses on the visual perception of agricultural cultivated landscapes by examining the role of five specific landscape components as predictors of visual preferences: field size, lot shape, land texture, crop texture and built elements. The Lower Galilee in northern Israel was chosen as the study area. The landscape was viewed by 90 participants using a photographic representation. Overall, the preference ratings indicated a relatively positive judgment of the agricultural cultivated landscapes. More specifically, the findings suggest that visual preferences regarding agricultural cultivated landscapes may be explained to a large extent by land textures, crop textures and lot shapes that are associated with complexity and fertility. Despite these findings, the intensification of agriculture over the last decades in many agricultural areas is still characterised by the removal of boundaries and the reduction of crop types. Increasing knowledge related to the visual perception of these landscapes may encourage the managers of agricultural areas to begin taking into account several crucial factors that influence the aesthetic quality of cultivated lands.     

Integrating time and the third spatial dimension in landscape structure analysis

Over the last decades, landscape metrics have been increasingly used to describe and analyse landscape structure. This article highlights some limitations of standard landscape structure analysis approaches and examines four major developments in this field: ways of integrating the height dimension of surface and vegetation into landscape metrics, the delineation of ‘meaningful’ landscape units comprising the relief, the problem of relating pattern and scale, and the challenges posed by the analysis of the temporal dimension of landscapes. We demonstrate that (1) the integration of height information and gradients into the approach of landscape metrics is both necessary and possible by means of using digital elevation models from remote sensing and novel analysis techniques, (2) the delineation of 3-D landscape units has enormous potential and (3) there are useful methodical extensions for two-dimensional objects in spatiotemporal investigations of landscapes, namely for analysing land use change and for exploring the interrelations between landscape diversity and species diversity.     

Remote sensing and GIS in modeling visual landscape change: a case study of the northwestern arid coast of Egypt

Land use planners in many countries have recognized the importance of the aesthetic values of landscape. Their desire to incorporate these values into decision-making processes has created a need to identify valid ways to quantify the scenic characteristics of landscapes. This has led to an increasing interest in the use of spatial data and geographic information systems (GIS) methodology in assessing visual attributes of the landscape. The objective of the present study is to assess the visual changes in a rapidly developing coastal area of Egypt using remotely sensed data (satellite images and aerial photographs) and raster GIS modeling. The analysis assesses changes between a period characterized by a vernacular, relatively natural landscape (1950s) and the beginning of the exploitation of the region for resorts (1990s). Using land use/land cover classes extracted from the satellite images and aerial photographs, four visual attributes of landscape are identified: land use/land cover diversity, activity (degree of naturalness), proximity to the shoreline, and topographic variety. A composite index is also developed. Although these attributes and the composite index rely mostly on the type of land use/land cover information on the landscape under consideration, the adopted techniques succeed in detecting several changes in the attributes, spatially locating them and mapping the magnitude of their changes. This study demonstrates what can be done to analyze and assess what is usually considered an incommensurable resource, the visual attributes of landscapes. It also reveals the extent of the impact of unplanned or ill-planned activities on one of the fragile resources of arid landscapes.     

Creating Landscape Preference Models Using Internet Survey Techniques

The use of the Internet to collect data for predictive landscape preference models is described and tested, including the issues involved in using such a method for data collection and the functionality of the questionnaire. The creation of a psychophysical landscape preference model for rural landscapes in Scotland is described. Ninety landscape images were analysed by digitizing each image into seven landform types, based on elevation and land cover. The colours present in each image were also recorded and variables representing complexity and coherence were measured. The most important predictors of visual landscape preference were found to be complexity, coherence and the presence or absence of water and mountainous landscape. These were among the variables used in two preference models, which explained over 65% of the variation in landscape preference and which produced correlations of over 0.6 with a second data set of preference scores.     

Creating Landscape Preference Models Using Internet Survey Techniques

The use of the Internet to collect data for predictive landscape preference models is described and tested, including the issues involved in using such a method for data collection and the functionality of the questionnaire. The creation of a psychophysical landscape preference model for rural landscapes in Scotland is described. Ninety landscape images were analysed by digitizing each image into seven landform types, based on elevation and land cover. The colours present in each image were also recorded and variables representing complexity and coherence were measured. The most important predictors of visual landscape preference were found to be complexity, coherence and the presence or absence of water and mountainous landscape. These were among the variables used in two preference models, which explained over 65% of the variation in landscape preference and which produced correlations of over 0.6 with a second data set of preference scores.     

An evaluation of VEGETATION-1 imagery for broad-scale landscape mapping of Russia: effects of resolution on landscape pattern

The problem of efficient use of multi-scale data for land-cover and landscape mapping has already attracted considerable attention in landscape ecology and some other disciplines. Over the last few decades, however, with the development of satellite remote sensing techniques, the questions of efficient planetary and macro-regional ecological mapping and modeling and integration of multi-scale data have become especially pertinent. The purpose of this study is to test the suitability of the coarse-resolution VEGETATION/SPOT imagery for landscape mapping. Effects of changing spatial resolution on land-cover proportion estimates were examined in 16 different landscapes using spatially degraded high-resolution imagery from the Russian satellite, RESURS-F. Comparison of simulated coarse-resolution data and original images and ancillary data for sites with different landscape patterns, showed strong scale dependence of the landscape characteristics (land-cover proportion, fragmentation, patchiness) in different case study areas, such as sub-boreal forest, sub-urban areas, and an agricultural region in the steppe zone.     

Exploring the Heterogeneity of Rural Landscape Preferences: An Image-Based Latent Class Approach

Effects of depopulation, farm family income and changes in agricultural practices, etc. have resulted in the abandonment or destruction of traditional mountainous landscapes. An image-based stated choice survey was applied to explore the effects of various landscape change processes on the preferences of a mostly urban sample (N = 410). The 128 digitally generated landscape scenarios represented various kinds and intensities of agricultural and tourism use of a historic terraced area in Austria. Latent class segmentations identified four segments, with different preferences for natural, managerial and social landscape features. While a preference for a more complex, mysterious and natural landscape was found for three segments, one segment preferred more open landscapes. The results indicate that landscape change can affect humans in different ways, and that evolutionary and cultural preference theories are useful in explaining landscape preferences.     

Interactions between abiotic filters,landscape structure and species traits as determinants of dairy farmland plant diversity

Maintaining farmland biodiversity in Europe under scenarios of agricultural intensification is a keystone challenge of nature conservation. The recruitment of species from the regional pool to local landscape mosaics and individual patches is known to be determined by multi-scale ecological filters. Here we aimed at clarifying the relative importance of the physical environment, land use and landscape structure, and species traits, as filters of landscape-level plant species diversity in intensive farmland. Vascular plant species diversity was surveyed in 18 dairy farmland mosaics along a gradient of agricultural specialisation in Northern Portugal. Plant species were grouped according to their life strategy, biogeographic origin, and synecological preferences. Species richness was found to be highest in lowland areas, where warmer climate and nutrient-rich soils contribute to balance the potential negative effects of intensive farming. Multiple predictors, related to physical environment (e.g. climate), land use (e.g. crop area), and landscape structure (e.g. mean patch size), were found to influence diversity patterns, even under the homogenizing effects of agricultural intensification. Dissimilarity models discriminated distinct types of responses, with patterns for biogeographic and synecological groups of species being better predicted by landscape based models. In contrast, a dominant role of physical predictors was observed in explaining diversity patterns for plant strategies. Overall, our results confirmed that physical environmental gradients, land use, landscape structure, and species traits interact in determining landscape-level plant diversity patterns. Such patterns may influence agro-ecosystem responses to environmental changes, and thus should be considered in the development of agri-environmental policies and monitoring schemes.     

Assessing landscape preferences: a visual choice experiment in the agricultural region of Märkische Schweiz,Germany

Natural amenities and the aesthetic value of agricultural landscapes are important territorial assets for improving rural tourism and the quality of the living environment. To identify which characteristics shape the visual quality of a landscape, a stated-preference survey was conducted (N = 200) using photorealistic landscape visualisations of four different landscape attributes (point green elements, linear green elements, crop diversity and presence of livestock). We estimated respondents’ preferences for landscape attributes, examined the extent of agreement among respondents and identified socio-economic factors influencing their responses. Results revealed that point elements had the highest general preference. About 70% of respondents preferred diverse and highly structured landscapes, while about 30% of respondents had opposing preferences. Preferences were also found to be dependent on the individual’s sociocultural background, such as their level of education, gender or age. These results can help to improve the multi-objective targeting of policies by including an aesthetic value perspective.     

Transition of the satoyama landscape in the urban fringe of the Tokyo metropolitan area from 1880 to 2001

An explicit understanding of past landscapes is a basic and important issue, which enables deeper understanding of current landscapes in a longer context and gives useful suggestion to today's landscape planning. In this paper, transition of the traditional Japanese agricultural landscape (satoyama landscape) over a relatively long temporal scale (1880–2001), and its inherent dynamics in each of four socioeconomically based time periods in two topographically different areas around the Tokyo metropolitan area was studied. Information derived from historical records and interviews was used to differentiate four socioeconomic periods, and to support and explain the results of the analysis. Old maps and aerial photographs were used to create land use maps, which were analyzed using GIS. The results illustrated drastic landscape change from agricultural to urban landscape, with unique land use and transition patterns in each study area. A large part of both study areas was affected by bi-directional conversion between woodlands and crop fields in the early part of the study period, in the form of shifting agriculture. Our results also showed that the landscapes are becoming less dynamic and it may suggest reconsideration for land use planning, which will lead to more stabilized landscapes.     

Transition of the satoyama landscape in the urban fringe of the Tokyo metropolitan area from 1880 to 2001

An explicit understanding of past landscapes is a basic and important issue, which enables deeper understanding of current landscapes in a longer context and gives useful suggestion to today's landscape planning. In this paper, transition of the traditional Japanese agricultural landscape (satoyama landscape) over a relatively long temporal scale (1880–2001), and its inherent dynamics in each of four socioeconomically based time periods in two topographically different areas around the Tokyo metropolitan area was studied. Information derived from historical records and interviews was used to differentiate four socioeconomic periods, and to support and explain the results of the analysis. Old maps and aerial photographs were used to create land use maps, which were analyzed using GIS. The results illustrated drastic landscape change from agricultural to urban landscape, with unique land use and transition patterns in each study area. A large part of both study areas was affected by bi-directional conversion between woodlands and crop fields in the early part of the study period, in the form of shifting agriculture. Our results also showed that the landscapes are becoming less dynamic and it may suggest reconsideration for land use planning, which will lead to more stabilized landscapes.     

Exploring public preferences for traditional farming landscapes

Given that an increasing share of budgetary resources are now being spent on measures aimed at protecting the visual quality of agricultural landscapes it will be important to better understand individuals’ landscape preferences and the factors that influence those preferences. Within this context, using a nationally representive survey of Irish residents, the central aim of this study was to gain more insight into people's preferences regarding traditional farming landscapes. Individuals rated agricultural landscapes in terms of beauty quite highly but given a choice prefer traditional more extensive farming landscapes over more modern intensive farming landscapes. Moreover, the results suggest that there are systematic differences in preferences for traditional farm landscapes between different demographic groupings and also depending on individuals’ environmental value orientations. Accordingly, in studying preferences for agricultural landscapes in particular areas it will be necessary to consider the social and demographic characteristics of the population as well as the physical aspects of the landscape.     

Social, aesthetic and ecological aspects of hedgerows in rural landscapes as a framework for greenways

Hedgerow network landscapes may be considered as greenways, as they provide agronomic, ecological, aesthetic and cultural benefits. They are among the most threatened agricultural landscapes of western Europe. Intensification of agriculture with the conversion of permanent grassland into ploughed land and the use of new machinery leads to the enlargement of fields and the removal of hedgerows surrounding them. There is a growing concern among conservationists, rural managers and the public to maintain these greenways as a framework for landscape sustainability.In France, hedgerow removal may be planned within reallotment programmes that take into account all the land of a municipality. In this planning process, criteria for keeping or clearing woody elements are based on agronomic properties of soil, environmental quality of elements and of the network, and property boundaries. Aesthetic aspects are rarely assessed. As rural landscapes are shifting from an almost unique function of agricultural production toward a multifunction of nature conservation, environmental protection, amenity and production, the conservation of hedgerow networks becomes of greater importance. The goal is now the protection of these greenways to provide not only ecological but also recreational and cultural benefits. In a case study in Brittany, we tried to link these different aspects. Our work is based on interviews and a landscape ecological survey. We found contrasting opinions between farmers and non-farmers concerning the density of the network. Nevertheless, the two groups agree on the necessity to keep greenways as part of their cultural landscape. Most of the people were not aware of the ecological role of hedgerow networks, and perceive them only by their visual properties. We proposed various scenarios based on ecological and aesthetic principles, and defined general guidelines for the design of new landscapes during reallotment programmes. The integration of different points of view by landscape planners is the only way to link visual values to productive or ecological processes, and must be effective in the case of the management of greenways such as hedgerows.     

农业结构转型对乡村景观与居民满意度的影响——以重庆九岭村为例

研究农业结构转型对山地乡村景观与居民生活满意度的影响,对促进山地欠发达地区乡村转型发展、乡村景观改善及居民生活质量提升具有重要意义。以重庆开州区九岭村为例,通过GIS遥感、野外实地填图和半结构访谈等方法分析九岭村农业结构调整状况,以及由此带来的乡村景观变化和居民生活满意度提升。结果显示：1）九岭村农业结构调整向规模化、专业化和非粮化的“增效提质”转型方向发展,农业结构调整沿着更加契合山地自然条件的方向优化,具有明显的垂直分布层级规律;2）乡村景观变化具有显著的空间多级分化特征,平坡较低、缓坡低和中坡中地形位区域的景观多样性指数（LDI）、景观破碎度指数（FI）、最大斑块指数（LPI）和景观聚集度指数（AI）得到较大改善,斜坡较高和陡坡高地形位区域的LDI、FI和AI变化幅度最低;3）农业纯收入、乡村旅游收入占比、村交通设施条件以及人均实际耕地面积是影响居民生活满意度的显著性要素;4）研究构建的“农产品非粮化的增效提质需求推动农业结构调整-农用地利用方式转变-乡村景观的多功能再造-乡村居民生活质量提升”的分析路径能够有效揭示农业结构调整、乡村景观变化和居民生活满意度的三位一体耦合关系。     

Spatio-temporal dynamics and evolution of land use change and landscape pattern in response to rapid urbanization

Analyzing spatio-temporal characteristics of land use change is essential for understanding and assessing ecological consequence of urbanization. More importantly, such analysis can provide basic information for appropriate decision-making. By integrating historical high spatial-resolution SPOT images and spatial metrics, this study explored the spatio-temporal dynamics and evolution of land use change and landscape pattern in response to the rapid urbanization process of a booming-developing city in China from 1996 to 2006. Accurate and consistent land use change information was first extracted by the change detection method proposed in this study. The changes of landscape pattern were then analyzed using a series of spatial metrics which were derived from FRAGSTATS software. The results indicated that the rapid urbanization process has brought about enormous land use changes and urban growth at an unprecedented scale and rate and, consequently, given rise to substantial impacts on the landscape pattern. Findings further revealed that cropland and water were the major land use types developed for urban sprawl. Meanwhile, the landscape pattern underwent fundamental transition from agricultural-land-use dominant landscape to urban-land-use dominant landscape spanning the 10 years. The results not only confirmed the applicability and effectiveness of the combined method of remote sensing and metrics, but also revealed notable spatio-temporal features of land use change and landscape pattern dynamics throughout the different time periods (1996–2000, 2000–2003 and 2003–2006).     

农林复合土地利用模式与农业文化遗产景观可持续性的相关性

在当今单一土地利用造成危机的背景下,农林复合土地利用模式对于农业文化遗产景观可持续发展的价值值得关注.深入研究农林复合土地利用模式在中国重要农业文化遗产系统(China National Important Agricultural Heritage System,China-NIAHS)中的重要性,及其对China-...     

New wilderness in the Netherlands: An investigation of visual preferences for nature development landscapes

The present research investigated visual preferences for nature development landscapes among 500 residents from six plan areas in The Netherlands. Significant differences in relative preferences for wild versus managed scenes were found between landscape types and respondent groups. Development of wild nature was evaluated less positively in a forested area than in more open, rural areas. Among the background variables included in the study, place of residence, age, socio-economic status, farming background, preference for green political parties, and recreational motives were found to be systematically related to relative preferences for wild versus managed nature scenes, accounting for 16% of the variance in preference ratings. These findings are discussed within an applied decision making context in The Netherlands.     

Proposing an agricultural belt to protect a city’s semi-rural characteristics: The example of Bartın,Turkey

Urban sprawl, a type of urban expansion, is perceived as a global problem due to changes in land conversions and landscape patterns. Farms, forests and shores have been converted into urban areas; this transformation affects energy flow, biochemical cycles and climatic conditions. To follow and evaluate the physical, social and ecological results of urban sprawl, we identified and measured temporal changes in land use and land cover. This is especially important for urban planning policies. In this study, temporal change is identified in the city of Bart?n using remote sensing and landscape metrics. An analysis of land cover and land transformation was done with LANDSAT5 TM/ETM satellite images from 1985 and 2015. These images were used to identify agricultural areas as land that has most commonly undergone drastic changes. Bart?n is a small semi-rural city that has undergone significant changes. Among the most important reasons for these changes were uncontrolled urban sprawl due to political and administrative decisions that lacked long-term planning and a comprehensive city plan. This study examined the risk factors for loss of semi-rural characteristics using the example of Bart?n city. To protect semi-rural city characteristics and control urban sprawl, we propose an agricultural belt based on spatial suitability and an evaluation of landscape metrics.