Comparative effects of driver improvement programs on crashes and violations

Recent reviewers of well-controlled driver improvement program evaluations have suggested that some programs result in measurable reductions in violations but not crashes. A comprehensive review of 65 studies evaluating driver improvement activities was conducted to determine the generality of these findings and to explore possible explanations of the lack of correspondence between violation and crash effects. Nineteen studies evaluating 59 driver improvement activities were found to be methodologically adequate. The major findings of the review are: (1) that driver improvement activities generally do result in reductions in violations; (2) there is an unpredictable and sometimes undesirable effect on crashes even in the presence of desirable violation effects; and (3) the lack of correspondence between violation and crash effects is not explained by lack of statistical power or by the types of violations affected. Further examination of driver improvement interventions revealed no strong evidence for different effects related to characteristics such as direct vs. indirect participant contact and group vs. individual contact.     

Car driver attitudes,perceptions of social norms and aggressive driving behaviour towards cyclists

The interaction of car drivers and cyclists is one of the main causes of cycle incidents. The role of attitudes and social norms in shaping car drivers’ aggressive behaviour towards cyclists, is not well understood and merits investigation. A sample of 276 drivers completed an online questionnaire concerning their attitudes towards cyclists, attitudes towards risky driving, perception of social norms concerning aggressive driving towards cyclists, and the frequency with which they engage in such aggressive driving behaviours. The results showed that attitudes towards cyclists, as well as social norm perceptions concerning aggressive driving towards cyclists, were associated with aggressive driving towards cyclists. Negative attitudes towards cyclists were more pronounced in non-cyclists than cyclists and their association with aggressive driving behaviour was stronger in cyclists than non-cyclists. The perception of social norms concerning aggressive driving towards cyclists had a stronger association with aggressive driving in non-cyclists than cyclists. Attitudes towards risk taking did not affect aggressive driving towards cyclists. These findings can inform campaigns that aim to improve cyclist and car driver interaction on the roads, making them safer to use for cyclists.     

An exploration of the perceptions of the average driver''s speed compared to perceived driver safety and driving skill

This study investigates the self-enhancement bias in driver attitudes, the finding that drivers rate themselves better than the average driver on safety and skill perceptions (Svenson, 1978 and Svenson, 1981; McCormick et al., 1986). A sample of 86 New Zealand drivers were asked their perceptions of their own and others' speeds in two conditions, 50 km/h and 100 km/h. The results established the self-enhancement bias for speed and safety, but not skill. Between 85% and 90% of drivers claimed to drive slower than the ‘average driver.' A new methodological technique derived from Harré and Gillett (1994) was used to investigate the direction of the self-enhancement bias. The results support the Downward Comparison Theory (Wills, 1981) because drivers consider other drivers negatively, rather than exaggerating their self-perceptions.     

Real-time driver drowsiness feedback improves driver alertness and self-reported driving performance

Driver drowsiness has been implicated as a major causal factor in road accidents. Tools that allow remote monitoring and management of driver fatigue are used in the mining and road transport industries. Increasing drivers’ own awareness of their drowsiness levels using such tools may also reduce risk of accidents. The study examined the effects of real-time blink-velocity-derived drowsiness feedback on driver performance and levels of alertness in a military setting. A sample of 15 Army Reserve personnel (1 female) aged 21–59 (M = 41.3, SD = 11.1) volunteered to being monitored by an infra-red oculography-based Optalert Alertness Monitoring System (OAMS) while they performed their regular driving tasks, including on-duty tasks and commuting to and from duty, for a continuous period of 4–8 weeks. For approximately half that period, blink-velocity-derived Johns Drowsiness Scale (JDS) scores were fed back to the driver in a counterbalanced repeated-measures design, resulting in a total of 419 driving periods under “feedback” and 385 periods under “no-feedback” condition. Overall, the provision of real-time feedback resulted in reduced drowsiness (lower JDS scores) and improved alertness and driving performance ratings. The effect was small and varied across the 24-h circadian cycle but it remained robust after controlling for time of day and driving task duration. Both the number of JDS peaks counted for each trip and their duration declined in the presence of drowsiness feedback, indicating a dynamic pattern that is consistent with a genuine, entropy-reducing feedback mechanism (as distinct from random re-alerting) behind the observed effect. Its mechanisms and practical utility have yet to be fully explored. Direct examination of the alternative, random re-alerting explanation of this feedback effect is an important step for future research.     

The independent contribution of driver,crash, and vehicle characteristics to driver fatalities

Several driver, crash, and vehicle characteristics may affect the fatality risk of drivers involved in crashes. To determine the independent contribution of these variables to drivers’ fatality risk, we used data from single-vehicle crashes with fixed objects contained in the US Fatal Accident Reporting System. A multivariate logistic regression revealed that the odds ratio (OR) of a fatal injury increased with age, reaching 4.98 (99% confidence interval (CI)=2.01–12.37) for drivers aged 80+ compared with drivers aged 40–49 years. Female gender (OR=1.54, 99% CI=1.35–1.76) and blood alcohol concentration greater than 0.30 (OR=3.16, 99% CI=1.96–5.09) were also associated with higher fatality odds. In comparison with front impacts, driver-side impacts doubled the odds of a fatality (OR=2.26, 99% CI=1.92–2.65), and speeds in excess of 111 kilometers per hour (kph; 69 mph) prior to or at impact were related to higher fatality odds (OR=2.64, 99% CI=1.82–3.83) compared with speeds of less than 56 kph (35 mph). Three-point seatbelts were protective against fatal injuries (OR=0.46, 99% CI=0.39–0.53 compared with no belt). These data suggest that increasing seatbelt use, reducing speed, and reducing the number and severity of driver-side impacts may prevent fatalities. The importance of age and gender suggests that the specific safety needs of older drivers and female drivers may need to be addressed separately from those of men and younger drivers.     

Safety improvements and driver perception

The paper deals with potential influences of engineering standards on driver perception. The argument is advanced that, in certain cases, the common belief that simplification of the driving task increases safety might be misleading. This might be the situation following engineering improvements. Driver confidence in the system may then be increased and driving task difficulties may be underestimated. As a result, decision criteria will be biased and driver attention level decreased. The overall effect is a degradation in driver performance which is due to a poorer detection of relevant cues and to poorer criteria. This degradation ultimately leads to an increase in accidents. The challenge of road engineering, therefore, should be to find the optimal balance between environmental demands (e.g. engineering standards and design levels) and drivers' perception of task difficulties.     

Speed as a measure of driver risk: Observed speeds versus driver and vehicle characteristics

This investigation was performed to determine relationships between driver and vehicle characteristics and freely chosen speeds of cars on a two lane road with little commercial or residential development. Speed is taken as a measure of a driver's willingness to expose himself to risk of accident, in the same way that short freeway headways were interpreted in an earlier study. A total of 6638 passenger car speeds were measured by radar while each oncoming vehicle was simultaneously photographed. Driver and vehicle characteristics were derived from the photographs, both by direct observation (vehicle type, driver sex, presence of front seat passengers, seat belt use) and from the car license plate through the use of State vehicle registration and driver licensing files. The State files provided the car mass and model year and the owner (usually driver) age, sex, and recorded accidents and violations. Higher speeds were observed for younger drivers, drivers with prior accidents and convictions, newer cars, heavier cars and cars with no passengers.     

“需确认的过程”的识别与确认

长期以来,"生产和服务提供过程的确认"一直是贯标组织和审核员理解与实施ISO 9001标准的难点所在,为使标准关于过程确认的要求更易于理解和实施,ISO9001:2008标准7.5.2条款第一段,在语言描述方面较2000版标准发生     

Explanatory pitfalls and rule-based driver models

Driver models should refer to either of two levels of explanation, (1) the rational or intentional level that is usually taken to represent the aggregate behavior of the driver population, or (2) the functional level which deals with intra-individual information processing. Frequently the two levels are confounded, which is likely to introduce serious theoretical problems--vicious circles and pernicious homunculi among them. After a conceptual analysis of the confounding problem, arguments in favor of a radical functionalistic (process-level) approach are put forward. Rule-based modeling, using some advanced production system architecture, appears to be the most promising inroad to better theories of driver behavior.     

Long-term predictability of driver behavior

Multiple regression was used to predict current accidents and violations for 2283 subjects from Iowa and California who had completed the Driver Attitude Survey [Schuster and Guilford, 1964] 10–18 yr previously and had had driver records recorded at that time. It was found that, on the whole, current violations could be successfully predicted with these data, while current accidents could not be. The results lead to the conclusion that violation behavior is more stable over time than had previously been acknowledged, previous research having looked at driver behavior in consecutive time periods only.     

虚拟仪器驱动程序设计

在虚拟仪器系统中，仪器驱动程序是连接仪器与用户界面的桥梁，是系统设计的一个关键。本文结合自行开发的基于VXI总线的多通道数字输入／输出模块仪器驱动程序，讨论了符合VXI总线即插即用规范的仪器驱动程序的一般设计方法，该方法对于其他的虚拟仪器驱动程序的开发具有参考与推广价值。     

Statistical study of tram driver accidents

This statistical study considers two basic hypotheses on industrial and traffic accidents the accident proneness theory and the spell theory. The two hypotheses were tested on the basis of a correlation analysis of accident distribution in a group of tram drivers over a five year observation period. Using the chi-square goodness of the test. the analysis showed the negative binomial distribution and the “short” distribution were successfully fitted,while the Poisson distribution significantly differed from the observations. Correlation analysis showed a significant correlation between the number of tram driver accidents over different periods, and that this correlation. although decreasing with an increase of the interval between observation periods, remained significant. The conclusion is that the proneness hypothesis explains more satisfactorily than the spell hypothesis the occurrence of accidents in tram drivers during tlie observation period.     

Normalization of precision and conformance confirmation in radiation monitoring

The concept of precision standard for the domain of radiation measurements is formulated. In accordance with international recommendations for the quantitative expression of the precision of measurements, the concept of the uncertainty of results is used and its application to problems of radiation monitoring of objects is demonstrated. The basic principles underlying the application of criteria that define the conformance of results to safety standards are formulated. An example of a conformance criterion for a typical situation of radiation monitoring is given.     

Entropy production analysis and experimental confirmation of absorption systems

Absorption chillers, heat pumps and heat transformers exploit thermal power input to satisfy a variety of refrigeration and heating applications, as well as to boost the temperature of low-grade heat. Can one arrive at accurate predictions of system performance with a simple analytic irreversible thermodynamic model? In capturing the essential physics of the problem, that model would be required to provide a predictive and diagnostic tool and to permit determination of optimal absorption system operating conditions. We derive such a model and check its validity against experimental data and computer simulation results from a variety of commercial absorption units. We reinforce the observation that commercial units appear to have evolved empirically such that maximum efficiency is realized under design conditions. The failure of a host of previously-published endo-reversible thermodynamic models to account for fundamental qualitative features and accurate predictions of system behavior is documented with computer simulation results and experimental performance data.     

Applying the RESPONSE Code of Practice for evaluation of driver assistance systems: driver age and perception of steering torque signals

An assessment of additional steering torque as a haptic signal to give drivers feedback from the vehicle in order to give lane-departure alerts or to support lane keeping is described. In two studies, driver performance and vehicle response were assessed in a practical study of haptic feedback conducted on a test track in a specially equipped vehicle. The first study was conducted on a total of 30 drivers and examined variations on the amplitude of the haptic signals. In a second study, with another group of 30 drivers, the focus was on the gradient of the signal. The RESPONSE Code of Practice requires that the signals used in driver assistance systems should be tested on driver groups which might perform less well than the average driver. Hence, both younger drivers and older drivers have been included in these studies. The analyses compared the results of these subpopulations with those from a group of experienced middle-aged drivers. The results do not indicate that age and experience influence the reactions times or perceptions of the signals. This finding was replicated in the second study. Furthermore, the results of the two studies show clear effects of amplitude and gradient of the haptic signal on drivers? perception and reactions.     

一种高速D/A卡的硬件电路及驱动程序设计

高速的D／A转换电路是高速音频复录设备的核心部分。本文阐述了一种基于PCI总线的双通道高速D／A转换卡的硬件设计。文中在比较了两种接口设计方案后，选择了接口芯片PCI9054的方案并阐述了原因。D／A转换电路采用了AD公司的AD768和AD811的组合，以满足D／A转换的速度和精度要求。最后本文在简要介绍WDM驱动模型的基础上，详细阐述了D／A卡在Windows2000操作系统下的驱动程序的设计思想与实现方法。     

Risky driving related to driver and vehicle characteristics

This investigation was performed to determine relationships between driver and vehicle characteristics and risk taking in everyday driving, as measured by close following in freeway traffic. A total of 12,000 observations were made of headways (time intervals between successive vehicles) in high flow freely moving freeway traffic at two sites, one in Michigan, the other in Toronto, Canada. The headways were measured using a photographic technique which allowed vehicle and occupant characteristics to be recorded, including type of vehicle and sex and seat belt use. For the Michigan observations, the vehicle license number was recorded, from which additional information on the vehicle and owner (usually the driver) was obtained from state files, including the vehicle mass and model year and the owner's age. sex and history of recorded accidents and traffic violations. Shorter headways, corresponding to higher risk, were found for drivers with prior accidents or violations, young drivers, male drivers, drivers with no passengers. and drivers who did not wear a seat belt. Vehicles associated with shorter headways included newer cars and cars of intermediate mass (1600–1900 kg).     

Effects of driver age and experience in abrupt-onset hazards

Novice drivers and older drivers are found to have the highest crash risk among all drivers and this has motivated many research studies into various aspects of novice and older drivers. Although age-related declines were expected, studies did not find older drivers to respond slower to hazards. This study examined the hazard detection and response latencies of 14 young novice drivers, 14 young experienced drivers, and 12 older experienced drivers, to abrupt-onset hazards. Older drivers were found to take longer times before fixating on an abrupt-onset road hazard but appeared to have insignificantly faster reaction times after the initial fixation. Hence, the overall response latency did not suggest any age effects. Older drivers also scanned the roadway less as compared to their younger counterparts. No effects of experience were found. The findings provided insight on age-related declines in hazard detection whose effects have been masked by other components of hazard response.