Cognitive appraisals, coping strategies, and support resources as correlates of parenting and infant development

By applying R. S. Lazarus's (1993) theoretical model, the authors explored the dynamics of stress and coping as central mechanisms underlying parenting adjustment and infant development. Longitudinal assessment of 140 primiparous mothers included measures of cognitive appraisals of parenting, coping strategies used, and supportive coping resources at pregnancy and 1 month, 6 months, and 12 months postpartum. Maternal outcome measures of adjustment included maternal well-being, parental efficacy, and observed behaviors of caregiving and affiliation. Infant developmental outcome was measured by the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (N. Bayley, 1993). All measures of the stress and coping model showed systematic developmental changes across the transition to parenthood as well as relative stability of individual differences. In addition, the stress and coping variables were found to have additive and interactive effects in predicting both maternal adjustment and infant development.     

Dysphoria: Relations to appraisals, coping, and adjustment.

Previous research has shown that individual differences in dysphoria are linked to adjustment, but the potential mediating influence of appraisals and coping has not been studied until now (R. Lazarus & S. Folkman, 1984). This study examined the direct and indirect influences of dysphoria on primary and secondary appraisal, coping, and psychological and physical adjustment in 361 college students. Results from conducting path analyses indicated that the link between dysphoria and adjustment was mediated by appraisals and coping. These results also suggest that dysphoria has both direct and indirect influences on adjustment. Implications for future research and development of appropriate interventions for working with dysphorics are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal resilience, cognitive appraisals, and coping: an integrative model of adjustment to abortion

We hypothesized that the effects of personality (self-esteem, control, and optimism) on postabortion adaptation (distress, well-being, and decision satisfaction) would be fully mediated by preabortion cognitive appraisals (stress appraisals and self-efficacy appraisals) and postabortion coping. We further proposed that the effects of preabortion appraisals on adaptation would be fully mediated by postabortion coping. Results of a longitudinal study of 527 women who had first-trimester abortions supported our hypotheses. Women with more resilient personalities appraised their abortion as less stressful and had higher self-efficacy for coping with the abortion. More positive appraisals predicted greater acceptance/reframing coping and lesser avoidance/denial, venting, support seeking, and religious coping. Acceptance-reframing predicted better adjustment on all measures, whereas avoidance-denial and venting related to poorer adjustment on all measures. Greater support seeking was associated with reduced distress, and greater religious coping was associated with less decision satisfaction.     

Cognitive appraisals, neuroticism, and openness as correlates of coping strategies: An integrative model of adptation to marital difficulties.

Investigated the factors related to the choice of 2 coping strategies, distancing/avoidance and planful problem-solving, in the context of marital relationships. The role of cognitive appraisals of marital difficulties, and personality traits of neuroticism and openness, in the choice of coping strategies used to solve marital difficulties was investigated with a sample of 200 couples (women aged 18-60 yrs; men aged 19-69 yrs). Results of standard multiple regression analyses showed for both genders that neuroticism was positively associated with distancing/avoidance, whereas openness was positively associated with planful problem-solving. In addition, results indicated that an individual who appraised his or her marital difficulties as threatening, compared to his or her resources, was more likely to use distancing/avoidance as coping strategy. Implications of these findings for coping theories are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Marital conflict, gender, and children's appraisals and coping efficacy as mediators of child adjustment.

The role of children's perceptions and appraisals in the impact of marital conflict was examined for 51 9- to 12-yr-olds from intact families. Gender differences were found in the cognitions and coping processes related to marital conflict and child adjustment. Appraisals of coping efficacy and the threat posed by marital conflict predicted adjustment in boys, whereas self-blame was linked with internalizing problems for girls. The appraised destructiveness of conflict was significantly related to perceived threat in boys and self-blame in girls. Boys appeared more attuned or, alternatively, less shielded from marital conflict, as reflected by the higher correlations with mothers' reports of marital conflict for boys than for girls. The significance of boys' appraisals to adjustment was suggested by the fact that boys' perceptions were better predictors of adjustment outcomes than were mothers' reports. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social support and coping strategies as mediators of adult adjustment following childhood maltreatment

Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to examine whether coping efforts and social support mediate the long-term sequelae of child maltreatment. The hypothesized SEM fit the data well and indicated that the association between previous childhood sexual and physical maltreatment and current psychological adjustment appeared to be strongly mediated by social support and coping strategies. In this sample of 302 female and male university students, most of whom reported at least one episode of childhood maltreatment, perceived social support and ways of coping with earlier maltreatment appeared essential to an understanding of the relationship between childhood maltreatment and later adjustment.     

Social support and maternal psychosocial adjustment during the transition to parenthood.

Examined whether support from social networks and from husbands would be associated with women's adjustment during pregnancy and postpartum. Levels of perceived stress, attitude toward baby, and social support were assessed for 23 23–38 yr old women at 35 wks gestation and at 3 mo postpartum. Ss also completed the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory, the Dyadic Adjustment Scale, and the Depression Adjective Check Lists. Support from husbands was associated with good adjustment in all areas during pregnancy and with good postpartum marital adjustment. Findings regarding support from network members suggest that women experiencing a difficult adjustment turned to their networks for support. The absence of an inverse relationship between support and adjustment over time suggests that network support was not effective in promoting better postpartum adjustment. Prebirth social support did not predict postpartum adjustment. (French abstract) (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social support, appraisals of event controllability, and coping: An integrative model.

An integrative model of mediating and moderating mechanisms in the coping process was examined in a 2-yr prospective framework with 175 college students using both single-group and multigroup LISREL analyses. Consistent with the hypothesized model, initial parental support was associated with subsequent changes in psychological adjustment both directly and indirectly through adaptive coping strategies. Moreover, as predicted, appraisals of event controllability moderated both the degree to which parental support influenced coping and the effectiveness of coping responses. With controllable events, family support predicted adaptive coping, and coping predicted changes in adjustment. With uncontrollable events, family support related directly to changes in adjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between adjustment to HIV and both social support and coping.

This study examined the relationships between HIV stage, social support, coping strategies, and adjustment to HIV. Ninety-six HIV-infected gay men and 33 seronegative comparison group participants participated in the study. In general, coping strategies and social support did not differ according to HIV stage. As predicted, adjustment was related to social support and coping strategies. Coping strategies were linked to psychosocial adjustment, whereas social support was more strongly associated with health-related variables. There was little evidence of buffering effects of either coping strategies or social support. Four coping strategies were related to low levels of psychological distress. Contrary to expectation, the relationships between coping strategies and adjustment did not vary as a function of HIV stage. However, the relationship between adjustment and some elements of social support varied as a function of HIV stage. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Response to stress, cognitive coping strategies, and the Type A behavior pattern.

Examined (a) whether Type A (coronary-prone) individuals respond with more psychophysiological arousal to threat to self-esteem than to threat of shock, (b) whether differences between Type A and Type B individuals in psychophysiological responses are greater under high than low stress, and (c) whether Type A and Type B individuals differ in how they cognitively cope with stress. 84 male college students participated. Results indicate that Type A Ss manifested higher pulse rates across all conditions and greater systolic and diastolic blood pressures in response to threat to self-esteem than did Type B Ss. Type A Ss also employed more suppression in response to both threat to self-esteem and threat of shock and employed more denial in response to threat to self-esteem than did Type B Ss. Implications regarding the means by which Type A behavior increases the risk of premature heart disease are discussed. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sickle cell disease pain: Relation of coping strategies to adjustment.

This study examines pain coping strategies in a relatively neglected pain population, sickle cell disease (SCD) patients. Seventy-nine patients diagnosed with SCD were given a structured interview to assess pain, activity level, and health care use during painful episodes. Patients also completed the SCL-90—R as an index of psychological distress and the Coping Strategies Questionnaire. Regression analyses controlled for age, sex, and disease severity measures. Results indicated that the coping strategies factors were important predictors of pain and adjustment. Individuals high on Negative Thinking and Passive Adherence had more severe pain, were less active and more distressed, and used more health care services. Individuals high on Coping Attempts were more active during painful episodes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping humour, stress, and cognitive appraisals.

Investigated relationships between sense of humor and cognitive appraisals (CAs) and reappraisals of a potentially stressful event. CAs by 44 female university students for an academic examination were obtained at several points in time. Ss with high scores on the Coping Humor scale by R. A. Martin and H. M. Lefcourt (see record 1984-15058-001) appraised the exam as more of a positive challenge. In their reappraisals, high humor Ss' ratings of importance and positive challenge were positively related to performance on the exam, whereas for low humor Ss this relationship was negative. High humor Ss adjusted their expectations on the next exam on the basis of performance on the previous exam, whereas low humor Ss did not. Sense of humor was negatively related to both perceived stress and dysfunctional standards for self-evaluation. Results support the proposal that a sense of humor may facilitate coping and adjustment. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation between coping strategies and distress, stress, and marital adjustment of multiple-role women.

This study examined time-management and self-care coping techinques that multiple-role women use and their relation to self-reported levels of distress, stress, and marital adjustment. The subjects (N?=?69) were married, had at least one child under the age of 12, and were employed outside the home for more than 20 hr per week. Subjects completed a demographic questionnaire, the Brief Symptom Inventory, the Derogatis Stress Profile, and the Locke-Wallace Marital Adjustment Test. In addition, subjects participated in a 15-min structured interview designed to assess number, type, and frequency of use of time-management and self-care coping strategies. Results of the study indicated that the number, type, and frequency of use of coping strategies were significantly related to self-reported levels of distress, stress, and particularly marital adjustment. Further analysis of high and low scorers on the marital-adjustment test revealed significant differences between the groups on measures of distress and coping. Subjects in the high-marital-adjustment group had significantly lower levels of distress, employed a greater number of coping strategies, and reported greater frequency of use of coping strategies than subjects in the low-marital-adjustment group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disability and coping as predictors of psychological adjustment to rheumatoid arthritis.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients have been identified as a medical population at risk for psychological disorder, largely because of the pain and functional disability that are the hallmarks of the disease. This study examined the degree to which self-reported functional disability and coping efforts contribute to psychological adjustment among adult RA patients over a 6-month period. Adaptive outcomes included maintaining a sense of worth, mastery, and positive affect despite the illness. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that increases in disability were related to decreased acceptance of illness and increased negative affect. Coping efforts were related to increases in positive affect. The findings provide modest support for the role individual coping efforts play in shaping illness-related outcomes. Although disability is not easily reversed, knowledge about coping strategies that moderate its psychological impact may provide a useful basis for designing psychological interventions to promote adjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessing cognitive coping strategies for acute postsurgical pain.

The Cognitive Coping Strategy Inventory (CCSI), developed from a theoretical taxonomy of coping strategies, allows for the assessment of coping strategies in acute pain settings. The initial instrument was administered to 83 postsurgical patients, and acceptable internal consistency was obtained for the subscales. After minor revisions it was administered to 100 postsurgical patients, a concurrent validity study was conducted, and its factor structure was investigated. The final version of the inventory was administered to 81 postsurgical patients. A sum index derived from the CCSI was significantly related to both self-perception of pain tolerance and independent ratings of subjects' pain coping ability. Concurrent validity studies indicated that a small portion of pain coping variance was accounted for by the CCSI, and cautions are raised regarding its use as an isolated measure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social support as coping assistance.

Proposes that it may be useful to reconceptualize social support as coping assistance. If the same coping strategies used by individuals in response to stress are those that are applied to distressed persons as assistance, models of coping and support can be integrated. To illustrate the utility of such an integration, coping strategies and support strategies are derived from a more general theory of stress-buffering processes. A variety of supportive strategies not previously identified by researchers are derived, such as situational reinterpretations, deliberate distraction, drug therapy, and mutual role-playing. Predictions regarding efficacious and nonefficacious types of support are made, and empathic understanding (based on sociocultural and situational similarities between a distressed person and a helper) is identified as a crucial condition for coping assistance to be sought, accepted, and found effective. (64 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Test anxiety, academic performance, and cognitive appraisals.

Investigated the impact of test anxiety on test performance and the cognitive appraisals of test-anxious students. To overcome limitations of previous research, state and dispositional measures of test anxiety were used over repeated performance trials. 62 Ss who were enrolled in an undergraduate statistics course that required multiple examinations were administered the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and served as Ss. Ss' expectations, thoughts, and performance were assessed at each of the 4 examination occasions. Results indicate that test anxiety was related to poor test performance both early and late in the term. When state anxiety levels were controlled for, the test anxiety–test performance relation was apparent only during the later stages of the course. The pattern of Ss' anxiety and appraisals suggests that test-anxious Ss experienced most doubt and concern early in the term. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When parents break sacred vows: The role of spiritual appraisals, coping, and struggles in young adults’ adjustment to parental divorce.

Young adults (N = 274; mean age = 18.9) recalled their spiritual responses to their parents’ divorce (M = 4.2 years ago). After controlling for general religiousness and spirituality, participants who had appraised the divorce as a sacred loss or desecration and experienced spiritual struggles over the divorce reported higher current depression, anxiety, painful feelings about the divorce (paternal blame, self-blame, loss and abandonment, seeing life through filter of divorce, intrusive thoughts), and spiritual growth. Prior adaptive spiritual coping was tied to greater current personal and spiritual growth and, unexpectedly, psychological distress. As expected, spiritual struggles with the divorce partially or fully mediated all but one of the links found between having appraised the divorce as a sacred loss or desecration and outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social and cognitive strategies for coping with accountability: Conformity, complexity, and bolstering.

This experiment tested predictions derived from a social contingency model of judgment and choice that identifies 3 distinctive strategies that people rely on in dealing with demands for accountability from important interpersonal or institutional audiences. The model predicts that (a) when people know the views of the audience and are unconstrained by past commitments, they will rely on the low-effect acceptability heuristic and simply shift their views toward those of the prospective audience, (b) when people do not know the views of the audience and are unconstrained by past commitments, they will be motivated to think in relatively flexible, multidimensional ways (preemptive self-criticism), and (c) when people are accountable for positions to which they feel committed, they will devote the majority of their mental effort to justifying those positions (defensive bolstering). The experiment yielded results supportive of these 3 predictions. The study revealed some evidence of individual differences in social and cognitive strategies for coping with accountability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social support and stress in the transition to parenthood.

Investigated specific components of social support and stress as predictors of postpartum depressive symptoms by assessing 71 18–35 yr old primiparous females during pregnancy and 2-wks, 8-wks, and 1-yr postpartum. A social provisions scale, the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression were administered during pregnancy. The latter 2 measures and an inventory of childcare stress were administered at 2- and 8-wks postpartum. The social provisions scale was readministered at 1-yr postpartum. Results show that overall social support predicted depression only in later weeks of the postpartum period. Specific components of social support that were most strongly predictive of postpartum depression were deficiencies in social integration and reliable alliance. Support appeared most strongly linked to depression at lower levels of stress. Findings highlight the complexity of the relationship between social support and mental health. (62 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)