Relationship of life events and personal orientations to symptoms of strain.

Data collected from 1,000 managers and nonmanagers through the Life Styles Inventory were analyzed to assess the direct and moderating effects of personal orientations on strain. Neither subgroup analysis nor regression with interaction terms indicated that personal orientations acted as moderators. However, a modest direct relationship between these orientations and symptoms of strain was found. The variance in the number of strain symptoms explained by personal orientations (6%) was only slightly less than that explained by life events (8%) and greater than that explained by background variables (3%). Results suggest that the implications of personal characteristics might not be fully recognized by theoretical models and stress-management programs that regard these variables exclusively as moderators. (60 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reactions of would-be helpers whose offer of help is spurned.

An experiment was conducted to test the proposition that rejection of help by a needy recipient constitutes a negative expectancy violation for the would-be helper. The helper will react to this self-threat by expressing negative affect, unfavorable evaluations of the recipient, low attraction to the recipient, and causal attributions for the rejection that cast the recipient in an unflattering light. To test these hypotheses, college freshmen were prompted to offer rules for word construction to a same-sex recipient (a confederate) who was described as needing remediation on vocabulary and who "failed" a practice task. After rejecting/accepting the help, the recipient failed or succeeded on a comparable task. The results were consistent with these predictions. Dispositionally high expectations of interpersonal success served to amplify helpers' reactions to rejection/acceptance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal and task-related moderators of leader-member exchange among software developers.

Although earlier studies have shown significant positive relationships between leader-member exchange (LMX) and its outcomes, they have also noted that the effect sizes of these relationships have been modest and heterogeneous. Addressing numerous calls for future studies that examine potential moderators of the LMX-job performance and LMX-job satisfaction relationships and utilizing a multidomain perspective, this study tests the moderating roles of personal (i.e., locus of control) and task-related (i.e., task autonomy) factors on these relationships. The results of an empirical study with a sample of 287 software developers and 164 supervisors participating at a large international information technology exhibition indicated that the LMX-job performance relationship was stronger when employees' locus of control was internal as opposed to when it was external. In addition, it was stronger when task autonomy was high as opposed to when it was low. Moreover, the results suggested that the LMX-job satisfaction relationship was stronger when task autonomy was high as opposed to when it was low. Finally, contrary to theoretical expectations, employees' locus of control did not moderate the LMX-job satisfaction relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An organizational model of choice: a theoretical analysis differentiating choice, personal control, and self-determination

Individuals experience choice when they select one option from among meaningful alternatives that possess relatively equal attractiveness and some degree of indeterminacy. Choice has been found to influence important psychological and behavioral outcomes. After differentiating among choice, personal control, and self-determination, the author offers a model of choice, with self-determination as the key mechanism regulating how choice influences intrinsic motivation. The model suggests specific types of choice-relevant information that should affect whether choice results in an internal (self-determined) or external (controlled) locus of causality. The individual characteristics of locus of control, self-presentation, self-esteem, and Type A personality are suggested as possible moderators of the effects of choice. Finally, the implications of the choice model for organizations and further areas of research are discussed.     

From dissonance to disidentification: Selectivity in the self-affirmation process.

Two studies examined the relationship between the content of a self-threat and the attractiveness of available self-affirmations (C. M. Steele, 1988). After self-threat was induced by means of a cognitive dissonance procedure, participants' choices for affirmations were examined in order to explore whether the attractiveness of a given affirmation depends on its relevance to the threatened domain of the self-concept. The authors hypothesized that when faced with a threat to a specific self-conception or standard, individuals may forego affirmations within the threatened self-concept domain in favor of affirmations of unrelated, compensatory domains. Both studies supported this hypothesis and further suggested that such selective self-affirmation can lead individuals to modify their self-concepts by identifying with self-aspects that justify dissonant behavior and by disidentifying with the standards that such behavior violates. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ego depletion and the strength model of self-control: A meta-analysis.

According to the strength model, self-control is a finite resource that determines capacity for effortful control over dominant responses and, once expended, leads to impaired self-control task performance, known as ego depletion. A meta-analysis of 83 studies tested the effect of ego depletion on task performance and related outcomes, alternative explanations and moderators of the effect, and additional strength model hypotheses. Results revealed a significant effect of ego depletion on self-control task performance. Significant effect sizes were found for ego depletion on effort, perceived difficulty, negative affect, subjective fatigue, and blood glucose levels. Small, nonsignificant effects were found for positive affect and self-efficacy. Moderator analyses indicated minimal variation in the effect across sphere of depleting and dependent task, frequently used depleting and dependent tasks, presentation of tasks as single or separate experiments, type of dependent measure and control condition task, and source laboratory. The effect size was moderated by depleting task duration, task presentation by the same or different experimenters, intertask interim period, dependent task complexity, and use of dependent tasks in the choice and volition and cognitive spheres. Motivational incentives, training on self-control tasks, and glucose supplementation promoted better self-control in ego-depleted samples. Expecting further acts of self-control exacerbated the effect. Findings provide preliminary support for the ego-depletion effect and strength model hypotheses. Support for motivation and fatigue as alternative explanations for ego depletion indicate a need to integrate the strength model with other theories. Findings provide impetus for future investigation testing additional hypotheses and mechanisms of the ego-depletion effect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does self-threat promote social connection? The role of self-esteem and contingencies of self-worth.

Six studies examined the social motivations of people with high self-esteem (HSE) and low self-esteem (LSE) following a threat to a domain of contingent self-worth. Whether people desired social contact following self-threat depended on an interaction between an individual's trait self-esteem and contingencies of self-worth. HSE participants who strongly based self-worth on appearance sought to connect with close others following a threat to their physical attractiveness. LSE participants who staked self-worth on appearance wanted to avoid social contact and, instead, preferred a less interpersonally risky way of coping with self-threat (wanting to enhance their physical attractiveness). Implications for theories of self-esteem, motivation, and interpersonal processes are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality, motivation, and performance: A theory of the relationship between individual differences and information processing.

Presents a model to relate the personality dimensions of introversion–extraversion, achievement motivation, and anxiety to efficient cognitive performance. It is demonstrated how these personality dimensions in combination with situational moderators (e.g., success, failure, time pressure, incentives, time of day, stimulant drugs) affect the motivational constructs of arousal and effort. A general information-processing model that accounts for the systematic effects of these motivational states on certain task components (sustained information transfer and some aspect of short-term memory) is proposed. Empirical generalizations about task components in a structural model are combined, and testable predictions that differentiate alternative motivational hypotheses are derived. (132 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Leading by example: The case of leader OCB.

The importance of leading by personal example or role modeling for effective leadership has been recognized in many leadership theories. However, leaders' ability to influence group behavior through exemplary behavior has received little attention in empirical work. This study explores leading by example through theoretical development and empirical testing of a moderated mediation model of the potential effects of leader organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). This model suggests that a leader's OCB may promote group OCB directly and indirectly by enhancing the group's belief that OCB is worthy. It also specifies the moderators of the direct and indirect effects of leader OCB on group OCB. Data from 683 members of 67 intact work groups, 67 group managers, and their supervisors support the hypothesized model. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of member status differences and task type on group consensus and member position change.

Investigated how status differences among discussants, together with the type of task, influenced the social-decision schemes that guide consensus and group performance among 345 male undergraduates. Members of 3-person groups received feedback from a test of decision-making ability that created 1 of 3 task-relevant status distributions (conditional, 2-3-4; outstanding, 2-2-5; and equal, 3-3-3 [larger values indicate higher status]) and reached consensus decisions on 1 intellective task (a mystery problem) and 2 judgmental tasks (personnel selection and allocation of resources). The latter 2 tasks had no correct answers and were particularly susceptible to normative factors. The particular social-decision scheme model (reformulated to allow for individual differences) that successfully predicted group decisions emphasized both task and status distribution: Intellective problem responses were predicted by a truth-wins model in the equal and conditional power conditions and a power-wins model in the outstanding power condition. Discussion-induced personal change (individual preferences before–after discussion) was highly dependent on status level, except for the intellective task, for which change was independent of status, but greater in overall magnitude than for the other 2 tasks. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

To predict some of the people some of the time: A reexamination of the moderator variable approach in personality theory.

Bem and Allen (1974) proposed but did not test the notion that trait relevance moderates cross-situational behavior consistency, but did obtain support, albeit weaker than is generally recognized, for a moderator effect of self-reported consistency. Kenrick and Stringfield (1980) showed that self-reported observability of behavior may also moderate self–peer consistency, but replication attempts were not entirely successful. Our investigation produced significant moderator effects on self–peer correlations for trait relevance, consistency, and observability when each of these variables was analyzed alone; we also obtained significant moderator effects for trait relevance and self-reported consistency (but not for observability) when all the variables were included in the same regression analysis. There was significant support for the prediction that the moderators combine additively: Self–peer correlations increased linearly as a function of the number of contributing moderator effects. There was even stronger support for the prediction that the moderators combined in an all-or-nothing manner: Self–peer correlations were high when the level of all three moderators was high, and low when the level of one or more of the three moderators was low. Our future research recommendation? Identify the optimal moderators and the manner in which they can be combined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stress among managers: The importance of dynamic tasks, predictability, and social support in unpredictable times.

In this field study, we examined the importance of dynamic tasks as stressors faced by managers. Predictability of a task and social support by mangers’ supervisors were considered as potential moderators of the interrelation between stressors and stress effects. A total of 142 managers (64 women, 78 men) from 46 German companies took part in our study. As expected, the more tasks were perceived as dynamic, the higher was the irritation level. This correlation was significant, but low as could be expected when choosing a single predictor to explain the level of irritation. Dynamic tasks and predictability were unrelated features of the work task. Predictability of a task had a moderating effect in that the interrelation between dynamic tasks and irritation was stronger when predictability was low. When managers perceived low support from their supervisors, the interrelation between dynamic tasks and irritation was stronger as well. We were able to evaluate the specific demands of managers in a rapidly changing environment. Our results demonstrated that dynamic tasks do not necessarily lead to impaired health. Managers’ supervisors can play an important role by reflecting on how to impose change for the managers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived performance norm as a mediator in the effect of assigned goal on personal goal and task performance.

We conducted two experiments to test the hypothesis that assigned goals affect personal goals and task performance, in part, by providing normative information about the task. Normative information inferred from the goal was expected to influence performance expectancy and performance valence, which, in turn, would affect personal goal and, ultimately, performance. In Experiment 1, 60 undergraduate students were assigned performance goals of varying difficulty on a brainstorming task, and measures of perceived norm, performance expectancy, performance valence, personal goal, and task performance were obtained. Results of analyses of covariance and path analysis were generally consistent with the proposed cognitive mediation model. In Experiment 2, information about the performance norm was manipulated independently of goal difficulty for 135 undergraduates working on the same brainstorming task. Results of similar analyses revealed that (a) the effects of goal difficulty observed in Experiment 1 were attenuated by the presentation of normative information and (b) performance norm had significant effects on all of the dependent variables. The findings have implications for the integration of motivation theories and for the use of goal setting as a motivational technique. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Information sharing and team performance: A meta-analysis.

Information sharing is a central process through which team members collectively utilize their available informational resources. The authors used meta-analysis to synthesize extant research on team information sharing. Meta-analytic results from 72 independent studies (total groups = 4,795; total N = 17,279) demonstrate the importance of information sharing to team performance, cohesion, decision satisfaction, and knowledge integration. Although moderators were identified, information sharing positively predicted team performance across all levels of moderators. The information sharing–team performance relationship was moderated by the representation of information sharing (as uniqueness or openness), performance criteria, task type, and discussion structure by uniqueness (a 3-way interaction). Three factors affecting team information processing were found to enhance team information sharing: task demonstrability, discussion structure, and cooperation. Three factors representing decreasing degrees of member redundancy were found to detract from team information sharing: information distribution, informational interdependence, and member heterogeneity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of information, choice and task complexity upon goal acceptance, performance, and personal goals.

Tested the hypothesis that information about a goal and/or task, choice in setting a strategy to achieve a goal, and task complexity interact to influence goal acceptance, personal goals, and performance. A laboratory experiment with 96 college students working on a class-scheduling task was used to test the hypothesis. The task consisted of producing mock class schedules consisting of 5 nonredundant classes. The Ss were assigned to either high-information, choice manipulation, or task-complexity conditions. Ss were administered a questionnaire assessing goal acceptance, personal goals, and performance prior to and on completion of the task. Results of 3-way ANOVA conducted on measures of goal acceptance, personal goals, and performance supported the hypotheses that choice in goal-setting and the provision of information interact as do information and task complexity. A 2nd study conducted to generalize these findings also supported the hypotheses. In the 2nd study, 40 animal caregivers (average age 28 yrs) were participants in a replication of the laboratory experiment with task complexity as a repeated-measures factor. Findings are discussed as a means of expanding the position of participation within the goal-setting model. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of personal and universal failure on the subsequent performance of persons with Type A and Type B behavior patterns.

Compared the task performance of Type A (coronary prone) and Type B (noncoronary prone) persons following failure on a task in which no one succeeded (universal failure) vs failure on a task in which others had succeeded (personal failure). Postfailure performance was measured in terms of speed of completion of anagrams. 26 Type A and 28 Type B undergraduates were selected based on their scores on the Jenkins Activity Survey. Initial analyses indicated that the failure manipulation was effective in influencing the Ss' perceived cause of their failures and that Ss were more anxious and depressed following personal than universal failure. Type A's performed better following personal than universal failure, whereas type of failure had no effect on the performance of Type B's. Results suggest that, contrary to what is usually thought, Type A's do not struggle for success indiscriminately and that there are situational determinants of the level of effort that Type A's will expend. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Functional domains of Escherichia coli single-stranded DNA binding protein as assessed by analyses of the deletion mutants

A series of C- and N-terminal deletion mutants of Escherichia coli single-stranded DNA binding protein (SSB) was constructed, purified, and characterized in terms of ability to self-multimerize and to bind to DNA. High-performance gel filtration chromatography revealed that the amino acids 89-105 play a key role in the maintenance of homotetramer for native SSB of 177 amino acids. Interestingly, all of the N-terminal deletion mutants studied here were eluted as octamers, indicating that the N-terminal 11 residues are involved in the prevention of the formation of octamers. The binding of SSB and its deletion mutant proteins to single-stranded d(T)n was examined by gel mobility shift assay and circular dichroism spectroscopy. C-terminal deletion mutant proteins, SSB1-135 and SSB1-115, maintained high affinity and may be wrapped by single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) in the same way as in the case of native SSB. In contrast, deletion of the C-terminal region (residues 89-115) or N-terminal region (residues 1-11) caused a dramatic decrease in the binding affinity. Furthermore, two different stoichiometries of SSB in the complexes with d(T)64, but not with d(T)32, were observed for native SSB, SSB1-135, SSB1-115, and SSB37-177, suggesting that the (SSB)65 and (SSB)35 binding modes, as previously demonstrated [Lohman, T. M., & Overman, L. B. (1985) J. Biol. Chem. 260, 3594-3603; Bujalowski, W., & Lohman, T. M. (1986) Biochemistry 25, 7799-7802], occurred at lower and higher SSB concentrations, respectively. A functional map for SSB molecule was presented and discussed.     

Identification of moderator variables by discriminant analysis in a multipredictable group validation model.

Used a multivariate discriminant analysis procedure to identify moderator variables in a multipredictable group validation (mpgv) model. Results from mpgv were compared to those of the univariate simple algebraic and absolute difference techniques. 17 variables, determined for 418 undergraduates (assigned equally to an experimental and a cross-validation group), were investigated as potential moderators of the relationship between the predictor and the criterion (gpa). The 3 techniques revealed moderators different from each other. In addition, number and types of moderators varied according to the composition of the prediction groups in mpgv. Results are discussed with respect to problems with moderator variable techniques. (27 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Test of the mediating role of goals in the incentive-performance relationship.

The mediating role of goal setting in the relationship between incentives and performance was investigated by specifically testing the effect on monetary incentives on subjects' personal goal level and commitment to an assigned goal. Subjects performed a computer-card sorting task for a 20-min practice trial and a 20-min experimental trial. In the experimental trial, they worked under 1 of 3 monetary incentive conditions (piece rate, hourly rate, and goal-attainment bonus). Incentives were unrelated to performance but did affect personal goal level and commitment to an assigned goal. These latter two variables were both strongly related to performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

God and the government: Testing a compensatory control mechanism for the support of external systems.

The authors propose that the high levels of support often observed for governmental and religious systems can be explained, in part, as a means of coping with the threat posed by chronically or situationally fluctuating levels of perceived personal control. Three experiments demonstrated a causal relation between lowered perceptions of personal control and the defense of external systems, including increased beliefs in the existence of a controlling God (Studies 1 and 2) and defense of the overarching socio-political system (Study 4). A 4th experiment (Study 5) showed the converse to be true: A challenge to the usefulness of external systems of control led to increased illusory perceptions of personal control. In addition, a cross-national data set demonstrated that lower levels of personal control are associated with higher support for governmental control (across 67 nations; Study 3). Each study identified theoretically consistent moderators and mediators of these effects. The implications of these results for understanding why a high percentage of the population believes in the existence of God, and why people so often endorse and justify their socio-political systems, are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)