Integrating Structural and Behavioral Leadership Strategies.

The nature of organizations and the environments in which they operate have grown increasingly complex. Certain obvious limitations of traditional bureaucratic models of leadership are being widely challenged in the literature. In general, scholars have begun to call for radical changes in the way the authors conceptualize and implement the leadership function in organizations of all sizes and types. One feature of proposed leadership models is the diversification of leadership throughout the organization in ways that empower individuals to recognize and act upon opportunities to contribute to the organization in leadership roles. This article offers some thoughts about conceptualizing this diversification in the context of systems theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transformational and Transactional Leadership: A Meta-Analytic Test of Their Relative Validity.

This study provided a comprehensive examination of the full range of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership. Results (based on 626 correlations from 87 sources) revealed an overall validity of .44 for transformational leadership, and this validity generalized over longitudinal and multisource designs. Contingent reward (.39) and laissez-faire (-.37) leadership had the next highest overall relations; management by exception (active and passive) was inconsistently related to the criteria. Surprisingly, there were several criteria for which contingent reward leadership had stronger relations than did transformational leadership. Furthermore, transformational leadership was strongly correlated with contingent reward (.80) and laissez-faire (-.65) leadership. Transformational and contingent reward leadership generally predicted criteria controlling for the other leadership dimensions, although transformational leadership failed to predict leader job performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A systems model of leadership: WICS.

This article reviews a systems model of leadership. According to the model, effective leadership is a synthesis of wisdom, creativity, and intelligence (WICS). It is in large part a decision about how to marshal and deploy these resources. One needs creativity to generate ideas, academic (analytical) intelligence to evaluate whether the ideas are good, practical intelligence to implement the ideas and persuade others of their worth, and wisdom to balance the interests of all stakeholders and to ensure that the actions of the leader seek a common good. The article relates the current model to other extant models of leadership. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Asking the right questions about leadership: Discussion and conclusions.

Five questions prompted by the articles in the American Psychologist special issue on leadership (January 2007, Vol. 62, No. 1., see records 2006-23492-001, 2006-23492-002, 2006-23492-003, 2006-23492-004, 2006-23492-005, and 2006-23492-006) suggest some new directions for leadership research: (1) Not do leaders make a difference, but under what conditions does leadership matter? (2) Not what are the traits of leaders, but how do leaders' personal attributes interact with situational properties to shape outcomes? (3) Not do there exist common dimensions on which all leaders can be arrayed, but are good and poor leadership qualitatively different phenomena? (4) Not how do leaders and followers differ, but how can leadership models be reformulated so they treat all system members as both leaders and followers? (5) Not what should be taught in leadership courses, but how can leaders be helped to learn? (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Introduction to special issue on defining and measuring character in leadership.

This article introduces the background and need for this special issue of the Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research on “Defining and Measuring Character in Leadership.” The introduction reviews some of the history of the concept of character in leadership, presents the major themes of the special issue, and briefly describes the 6 papers related to 3 models of character in leadership (ethical/virtuous leadership, authentic transformational leadership, and worthy leadership) and the specific elements of integrity, ethics, virtues, and moral potency. The introduction notes that each article in the special issue indicates how character in leadership can be defined, operationalized, and assessed. The implications of each model for the practice of consulting psychology are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An examination of "nonleadership": From laissez-faire leadership to leader reward omission and punishment omission.

Laissez-faire leadership has received much less attention than have the 3 transactional leadership dimensions of the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ). However, laissez-faire leadership has shown strong negative relationships with various leadership criteria, and the absence of leadership (laissez-faire leadership) may be just as important as is the presence of other types of leadership. This article focuses on a single type of laissez-faire leadership (i.e., the lack of response to subordinate performance). Using a reinforcement perspective, the authors developed measures and examined the effects of the lack of performance-contingent reinforcement in 2 forms: reward omission (leader nonreinforcement of good subordinate performance) and punishment omission (leader nonreinforcement of poor subordinate performance). They found strong evidence in support of the construct validity of the new measures and found that omission was related to follower satisfaction with the leader, subordinate-rated leader effectiveness, subordinate-perceived role clarity, and supervisor-rated subordinate performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Why flexible and adaptive leadership is essential.

In this article we explain different conceptions of flexible and adaptive leadership and the reasons why such leadership is essential in today's organizations. Then we briefly describe several streams of research that provide useful knowledge about flexible and adaptive leadership. It was not feasible to provide a comprehensive and detailed review for each research stream, but we describe the primary research methods, summarize major findings, and provide some practical guidelines for leaders on how to become more flexible and adaptive. Finally, we point out limitations of the available research and make recommendations for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Acceptance of uncertainty as an indicator of effective leadership.

Research and experience continue to reveal evolving modes of leadership behavior that challenge the practice of consulting psychology. Leadership development that has taken us beyond the notion of born leaders and stable environments has suggested that flexibility is vital. This may be partly because of the constant evolution of the organization and its leadership challenges, from command-and-control to paradigms that are participatory and recognize the importance of interpersonal skills, to an emerging paradigm concerned with organizational learning. Consulting psychologists have identified a wide variety of leadership modes or ideals to fit these newer paradigms. Common to many of these is the need to be comfortable navigating ambiguous situations. One of the metrics that is indicative of this skill is the capacity to effectively process the uncertainty that often accompanies ambiguity. We present preliminary data for a potential tool for assessing this skill. We suggest that measuring an individual's “aptitude for ambiguity” should be considered when identifying high performers for leadership roles. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Foreword to the special issue on leadership.

The purpose of this special issue is to introduce readers of the American Psychologist to recent theory and research on leadership. The articles are written by some of the leading theorists in the study of leadership and are intended to present an overview of much (although certainly not all) of the field as it exists today. The goal is not to present only the latest findings or cutting-edge research, but rather, to serve as a tutorial providing background that might whet readers' appetites to read more. Some of the major approaches that are covered are trait views, situational views, contingency views, and systems views. The introduction to the articles and the concluding discussion of them are intended to provide original syntheses of the ideas in the main articles but also to go beyond these articles to provide an overview of the original perspectives of the contributors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Leadership Behavior and Subordinate Well-Being.

The authors used a longitudinal design to investigate the relation between leadership behavior and the well-being of subordinates. Well-being is conceptualized as people's feelings about themselves and the settings in which they live and work. Staff members (N = 562) of 2 Community Trusts participated 4 times in a 14-month period. Five models were formulated to answer 2 questions: What is the most likely direction of the relation between leadership and well-being, and what is the time frame of this relation? The model with the best fit suggested that leadership behavior and subordinate responses are linked in a feedback loop. Leadership behavior at Time 1 influenced leadership behavior at Time 4. Subordinate well-being at Time 2 synchronously influenced leadership behavior at Time 2. Leadership behavior at Time 4 synchronously influenced subordinate well-being at Time 4. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Socialized charismatic leadership, values congruence, and deviance in work groups.

The authors conducted a field study to investigate the relationship between socialized charismatic leadership and deviance in work groups. Because socialized charismatic leaders are thought to play an ethical leadership role, the authors hypothesized that the socialized charismatic leadership style would be associated with reduced deviance in the leader's work group. This prediction was supported for both the interpersonal and the organizational dimensions of deviance. Next, the authors examined the mediating role of values congruence. The results were partially supportive of the values congruence mediating hypothesis. Implications for future research and for management are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Introduction to the special issue on diversity and leadership.

Theories of leadership have neglected diversity issues. As the population within the United States and in countries throughout the world becomes increasingly diverse, the contexts in which leadership occurs within institutions and communities will also become increasingly diverse. Attention to diversity is not simply about representation of leaders from diverse groups in the ranks of leadership. Attention to diversity means paradigm shifts in our theories of leadership so as to make them inclusive; it means incorporating explanations of how dimensions of diversity shape our understanding of leadership. It means paying attention to the perceptions and expectations of diverse leaders by diverse followers and to how bias influences the exercise of leadership. Although leadership theories have evolved and reflect changing social contexts, they remain silent on issues of equity, diversity, and social justice. Theories of leadership need to be expanded to incorporate diversity if they are to be relevant for the 21st century amidst new social contexts, emerging global concerns, and changing population demographics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Leadership and followership: Same animal, different spots?

This study examined the relationship between the constructs of leadership, as operationalized through the Leadership Personality Survey (LPS), and followership, as operationalized by the Power of followership Survey (PFS). The LPS is based on the 5-factor model of personality that is widely regarded as the premier model for understanding trait personality dimensions. The PFS is based on R. E. Kelley's (1992) model of followership styles. Data were collected from 130 students at a military college as part of their involvement in an academic course on leadership. Correlational analyses revealed numerous significant positive relationships between these 2 con- structs. Regression modeling provided insight into the relations of personality dimensions and followership. Limitations to this study and implications of these findings as well as future research directions are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality and Transformational and Transactional Leadership: A Meta-Analysis.

This study was a meta-analysis of the relationship between personality and ratings of transformational and transactional leadership behaviors. Using the 5-factor model of personality as an organizing framework, the authors accumulated 384 correlations from 26 independent studies. Personality traits were related to 3 dimensions of transformational leadership--idealized influence-inspirational motivation (charisma), intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration--and 3 dimensions of transactional leadership--contingent reward, management by exception-active, and passive leadership. Extraversion was the strongest and most consistent correlate of transformational leadership. Although results provided some support for the dispositional basis of transformational leadership--especially with respect to the charisma dimension--generally, weak associations suggested the importance of future research to focus on both narrower personality traits and nondispositional determinants of transformational and transactional leadership. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Foreword: Executive coaching as an emerging competency in the practice of consultation.

This article comments on the importance of competent organizational executive leadership and the practice of executive coaching in professional consultation. As it is currently practiced, executive coaching appears to be an eclectic mix of concepts and methods that are being applied by a variety of consultants who have accepted assignments to work with individual executives. The author concludes by introducing the issue of the Consulting Psychology Journal on executive coaching which reviews literature in the field, identifies current approaches and methods, and provides an opportunity for leading practitioners to describe what they are doing and help define the core concepts and definitions of this emerging competency. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Flexible leadership: An integrative perspective.

The notion that leaders are more effective if they can flex their leadership style to deal with shifting priorities, problems, and situations is receiving an increasing amount of attention from consulting psychologists and applied researchers alike. I discuss how flexible leadership is defined with a variety of concepts in the literature and emphasized in the articles in the special issue of Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research on Developing Flexible and Adaptive Leaders for an Age of Uncertainty (Kaiser, 2010, this issue). By integrating the views of the previous authors, I present flexible leadership as a metacompetency that subsumes multiple, more narrowly defined, components (e.g., a wide behavioral repertoire, a learning orientation to develop it, an ability to remain open to learning in novel situations). A model for applying this conception of flexible leadership is discussed followed by suggestions for further research to help consulting psychologists use these ideas in their practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trust in leadership: Meta-analytic findings and implications for research and practice.

In this study, the authors examined the findings and implications of the research on trust in leadership that has been conducted during the past 4 decades. First, the study provides estimates of the primary relationships between trust in leadership and key outcomes, antecedents, and correlates (k=106). Second, the study explores how specifying the construct with alternative leadership referents (direct leaders vs organizational leadership) and definitions (types of trust) results in systematically different relationships between trust in leadership and outcomes and antecedents. Direct leaders (e.g., supervisors) appear to be a particularly important referent of trust. Last, a theoretical framework is offered to provide parsimony to the expansive literature and to clarify the different perspectives on the construct of trust in leadership and its operation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men.

A meta-analysis of 45 studies of transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles found that female leaders were more transformational than male leaders and also engaged in more of the contingent reward behaviors that are a component of transactional leadership. Male leaders were generally more likely to manifest the other aspects of transactional leadership (active and passive management by exception) and laissez-faire leadership. Although these differences between male and female readers were small, the implications of these findings are encouraging for female leadership because other research has established that all of the aspects of leadership style on which women exceeded men relate positively to leaders' effectiveness whereas all of the aspects on which men exceeded women have negative or null relations to effectiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Leadership and the fate of organizations.

This article concerns the real-world importance of leadership for the success or failure of organizations and social institutions. The authors propose conceptualizing leadership and evaluating leaders in terms of the performance of the team or organization for which they are responsible. The authors next offer a taxonomy of the dependent variables used as criteria in leadership studies. A review of research using this taxonomy suggests that the vast empirical literature on leadership may tell us more about the success of individual managerial careers than the success of these people in leading groups, teams, and organizations. The authors then summarize the evidence showing that leaders do indeed affect the performance of organizations--for better or for worse--and conclude by describing the mechanisms through which they do so. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What We Know About Leadership.

This article reviews the empirical literature on personality, leadership, and organizational effectiveness to make 3 major points. First, leadership is a real and vastly consequential phenomenon, perhaps the single most important issue in the human sciences. Second, leadership is about the performance of teams, groups, and organizations. Good leadership promotes effective team and group performance, which in turn enhances the well-being of the incumbents; bad leadership degrades the quality of life for everyone associated with it. Third, personality predicts leadership--who we are is how we lead--and this information can be used to select future leaders or improve the performance of current incumbents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)