Roles of Sexual Objectification Experiences and Internalization of Standards of Beauty in Eating Disorder Symptomatology: A Test and Extension of Objectification Theory.

This study extends the literature on eating disorder symptomatology by testing, based on extant literature on objectification theory (B. L. Fredrickson & T. Roberts, 1997) and the role of sociocultural standards of beauty (e.g., L. J. Heinberg, J. K. Thompson, & S. Stormer, 1995), a model that examines (a) links of reported sexual objectification experiences to eating disorder-related variables and (b) the mediating roles of body surveillance, body shame, and internalization of sociocultural standards of beauty. Consistent with hypotheses, with a sample of 221 young women, support was found for a model in which (a) internalization of sociocultural standards of beauty mediated the links of sexual objectification experiences to body surveillance, body shame, and eating disorder symptoms, (b) body surveillance was an additional mediator of the link of reported sexual objectification experiences to body shame, and (c) body shame mediated the links of internalization and body surveillance to disordered eating. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnic and age differences in eating disorder symptomatology among Albertan women.

Ethnic and age differences in body mass index (BMI), body shame, and eating disorder symptomatology were investigated in a representative, nonclinical sample (N = 601) of women from the Province of Alberta. Women reported ethnicity (White, Hispanic, Aboriginal, Asian), age, height, and weight (used to calculate BMI), and items measuring body shame and eating disorder symptomatology. Strong ethnic differences were observed. Aboriginal women reported significantly higher BMI than Hispanic and Asian women. Hispanic women reported higher body shame than White women. Hispanic women also reported more bulimic behaviour than White, Aboriginal, and Asian women. White women reported lower body satisfaction than Asian and Aboriginal women. Aboriginal women reported the highest body satisfaction. Bulimic behaviour was lowest in older women (65+ years) compared with other age groups. Body satisfaction was greatest in older women (65+ years). These study findings have important implications for theory, research, and practise, as our society continues to place an inordinate value on thinness and beauty as ideals for women and girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A test and extension of objectification theory as it predicts disordered eating: Does women's age matter?

When predicting disordered eating, models incorporating several of objectification theory's (B. L. Fredrickson & T. A. Roberts, 1997) core constructs (i.e., sexual objectification, self-objectification, body shame, poor interoceptive awareness) have been empirically supported with women of traditional undergraduate age who are consistent in age with the youthful-ideal prototype for women presented in the media. The present study extended this research by testing these core constructs with women ages 25–68 years (n = 330), as their experiences with these constructs may differ as they deviate from this youthful prototype. A multiple-groups analysis comparing these women with women ages 18–24 (n = 329) indicated that objectification theory can be extended to women ages 25 and older, as the model provided an adequate fit to the data. However, structural invariance analysis revealed that what takes place within the model may not be identical for these groups. The older group had a stronger relationship between body shame and disordered eating and a weaker relationship between poor interoceptive awareness and disordered eating than did the younger group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Body dissatisfaction, ethnic identity, and disordered eating among African American women.

Initial research suggested that only European American women developed eating disorders (Garner, 1993), yet recent studies have shown that African American women do experience them (e.g., Lester & Petrie, 1998b; Mulholland & Mintz, 2001) and also may be negatively affected by similar sociocultural variables. In this study, we examined a sociocultural model of eating disorders for African American women but included the influences of ethnic identity (e.g., Hall, 1995; Helms, 1990). Participants (N = 322) were drawn from 5 different universities. They completed measures representing ethnic identity, societal pressures regarding thinness, internalization of societal beauty ideals, body image concerns, and disordered eating. Structural equation modeling revealed that ethnic identity was inversely, and societal pressures regarding thinness directly, related to internalization of societal beauty ideals. Societal pressures regarding thinness was also related to greater body image concerns. Both internalization of societal beauty ideals and body image concerns were positively associated with disordered eating (R2 = .79). Overall, the final model fit the data well, supporting its generalizability and the importance of ethnic identity in determining risk. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Body image and eating disorder symptoms in sexual minority men: A test and extension of objectification theory.

On the basis of integrating objectification theory research with research on body image and eating problems among sexual minority men, the present study examined relations among sociocultural and psychological correlates of eating disorder symptoms with a sample of 231 sexual minority men. Results of a path analysis supported tenets of objectification theory with the sample. Specifically, findings were consistent with relations posited in objectification theory among sexual objectification experiences, internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness, body surveillance, body shame, and eating disorder symptoms. Within this set of positive relations, internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness partially mediated the link of sexual objectification experiences with body surveillance; body surveillance partially mediated the relation of internalization with body shame; and body shame partially mediated the relation of body surveillance with eating disorder symptoms. In addition to these relations, internalized homophobia was related to greater eating disorder symptoms through body shame, and recalled childhood harassment for gender nonconformity was linked with eating disorder symptoms through a positive series of relations involving internalization of cultural standards of attractiveness, body surveillance, and body shame. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Are intuitive eating and eating disorder symptomatology opposite poles of the same construct?

Two studies explored whether intuitive eating (i.e., eating based on physiological hunger and satiety cues rather than situational and emotional cues) is a distinct construct from low levels of eating disorder (ED) symptomatology among college women. Previous research has demonstrated that high levels of ED symptomatology are related to lower levels of well-being. Therefore, if intuitive eating is a distinct construct, then it should be associated with indices of well-being above and beyond the variance accounted for by ED symptomatology. Findings revealed that two intuitive eating components (i.e., eating for physical rather than emotional reasons and reliance on internal hunger and satiety cues) made unique contributions to each well-being measure, whereas the remaining intuitive eating component (i.e., unconditional permission to eat) overlapped substantially with low levels of ED symptomatology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Exploring a model of intuitive eating with college women.

Intuitive eating (i.e., eating based on physiological hunger and satiety cues rather than situational and emotional cues) recently has gained recognition as an adaptive eating style. The present study explored a model of intuitive eating based on a foundation of acceptance with 2 samples of college women. Path analysis with the 1st sample (N = 181) revealed that the acceptance model provided an excellent fit to the data, and latent variable structural equation modeling with the 2nd sample (N = 416) cross-validated this model. Specifically, general unconditional acceptance predicted body acceptance by others, body acceptance by others predicted an emphasis on body function over appearance, body acceptance by others and an emphasis on body function predicted body appreciation, and an emphasis on body function and body appreciation predicted intuitive eating. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

U.S. Muslim women and body image: Links among objectification theory constructs and the hijab.

This study tested tenets of objectification theory and explored the role of the hijab in body image and eating disorder symptoms with a sample of 118 Muslim women in the United States. Results from a path analysis indicated that individual differences in wearing the hijab were related negatively with reported sexual objectification experiences. Sexual objectification experiences, in turn, had significant positive indirect relations with body surveillance, body shame, and eating disorder symptoms, primarily through the mediating role of internalization. Internalization of cultural standards of beauty also had a significant positive direct relation with body shame and significant positive direct and indirect relations with eating disorder symptoms. By contrast, the direct and indirect relations of body surveillance were significant only when the role of internalization was constrained to 0 (i.e., eliminated), suggesting that internalization of cultural standards of beauty subsumed the hypothesized role of body surveillance in the model. Taken together, these results support some of the tenets of objectification theory with a sample of U.S. Muslim women, point to the importance of internalization of dominant cultural standards of beauty within that framework, and suggest the utility of considering individual differences in wearing the hijab among U.S. Muslim women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Moderators of the body dissatisfaction-eating disorder symptomatology relationship: Replication and extension.

In this study, research conducted by T. L. Tylka (2004) was replicated and extended by examining perfectionism (self-oriented and socially prescribed), ego goal orientation, body surveillance, and neuroticism as moderators of the relationship between body dissatisfaction and bulimic and anorexic symptomatology among female undergraduates (N = 398). Hierarchical moderated regression was used to test the main and interactive effects of the models and to control for physical size and social desirability. As expected, body dissatisfaction was strongly related to the measures of disordered eating, accounting for 16% to 26% of the variance. Two variables (neuroticism and body surveillance) received support as moderators of the relationships between body dissatisfaction and bulimic and anorexic symptoms. Ego goal orientation and socially prescribed perfectionism moderated the effects of body dissatisfaction on bulimic symptoms, whereas self-oriented perfectionism served as a moderator only for anorexic symptoms. In all instances, higher levels of body dissatisfaction paired with higher levels of the moderator were associated with more disturbed eating. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Overvaluation of shape and weight in binge eating disorder.

The excessive influence of shape or weight on self-evaluation--referred to as overvaluation--is considered by some a central feature across eating disorders but is not a diagnostic requirement for binge eating disorder (BED). This study examined shape/weight overvaluation in 399 consecutive patients with BED. Participants completed semistructured interviews, including the Eating Disorder Examination (EDE; C. G. Fairburn & Z. Cooper, 1993) and several self-report measures. Shape/weight overvaluation was unrelated to body mass index (BMI) but was strongly associated with measures of eating-related psychopathology and psychological status (i.e., higher depression and lower self-esteem). Participants were categorized via EDE guidelines into 1 of 2 groups: clinical overvaluation (58%) or subclinical overvaluation (42%). The 2 groups did not differ significantly in BMI or binge eating frequency, but the clinical overvaluation group had significantly greater eating-related psychopathology and poorer psychological status than the subclinical overvaluation group. Findings suggest that overvaluation does not simply reflect concern commensurate with being overweight but is strongly associated with eating-related psychopathology and psychological functioning and warrants consideration as a diagnostic feature for BED. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dissonance and healthy weight eating disorder prevention programs: Long-term effects from a randomized efficacy trial.

Adolescent girls with body dissatisfaction (N = 481, SD = 1.4) were randomized to a dissonance-based thin-ideal internalization reduction program, healthy weight control program, expressive writing control condition, or assessment-only control condition. Dissonance participants showed significantly greater decreases in thin-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, negative affect, eating disorder symptoms, and psychosocial impairment and lower risk for eating pathology onset through 2- to 3-year follow-up than did assessment-only controls. Dissonance participants showed greater decreases in thin-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, and psychosocial impairment than did expressive writing controls. Healthy weight participants showed greater decreases in thin-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, negative affect, eating disorder symptoms, and psychosocial impairment; less increases in weight; and lower risk for eating pathology and obesity onset through 2- to 3-year follow-up than did assessment-only controls. Healthy weight participants showed greater decreases in thin-ideal internalization and weight than did expressive writing controls. Dissonance participants showed a 60% reduction in risk for eating pathology onset, and healthy weight participants showed a 61% reduction in risk for eating pathology onset and a 55% reduction in risk for obesity onset relative to assessment-only controls through 3-year follow-up, implying that the effects are clinically important and enduring. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Males and eating disorders: Gender-based therapy for eating disorder recovery.

Mental health professionals may wonder how males with eating disorders differ from females with eating disorders and how best to treat males with eating disorders. The eating disorder literature largely focuses on females. Limited research has examined assessment and treatment of eating disorders in males. This article offers a unique view of eating disorder treatment for males by integrating it with the literature on the psychology of men. Mental health professionals are given practical suggestions to guide eating disorder recovery in males. A case example shows treatment considerations for working with males with disordered eating behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Puberty and the genetic diathesis of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors.

Twin studies from the Minnesota Twin Family Study (MTFS) suggest negligible genetic effects on eating pathology before puberty but increased genetic effects during puberty. However, an independent study found no pubertal differences in genetic and environmental effects (R. Rowe, A. Pickles, E. Simonoff, C. M. Bulik, & J. L. Silberg, 2002). Discrepant results may be due to methodological differences. The MTFS studies divided twins at mid-puberty, whereas R. Rowe et al. (2002) divided twins based on menarche alone. In the present study, the authors aimed to reconcile discrepant findings by examining differences in etiologic effects for disordered eating attitudes and behaviors (i.e., levels of weight preoccupation, body dissatisfaction, binge eating, compensatory behaviors) using both classification methods in a new sample of 656 female twins. Using the MTFS method (i.e., K. L. Klump, M. McGue, & W. G. Iacono, 2003), the authors observed nominal genetic effects in prepubertal twins but significant genetic effects in pubertal and young adult twins. Conversely, genetic effects were moderate and equal in all groups using the R. Rowe et al. (2002) method. Findings highlight the potentially important role of puberty in the genetic diathesis of disordered eating attitudes and behaviors and the need to use early indicators of pubertal status in studies of developmental effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sociocultural factors and the development of disordered eating: A longitudinal analysis of competing hypotheses.

Sociocultural models hypothesize causal paths in the development of eating disorders, yet few longitudinal studies have controlled for temporal stability, leaving open the question as to causality and the directionality of effects. In the present study, the authors tested portions of the socioculturally based dual-pathway model, specifically, the risk factor hypotheses that internalization of the thin ideal predicts body dissatisfaction, that body dissatisfaction predicts depressive affect, and that depressive affect predicts disordered eating. The authors also examined competing hypotheses (e.g., disordered eating predicts depressive affect) as well as the possibility of simultaneous relationships (i.e., variables would be related to one another within a time frame). The 6 models (3 cross-lagged and 3 simultaneous) were evaluated using 236 female freshmen who provided self-report data during their 1st semester in college and 6 months later. While controlling for temporal stability, structural equation modeling revealed that (a) internalization and body image each were related to the other across time; (b) body image was related directionally, but only in the simultaneous context, to depressive affect; and (c) depressive affect and disordered eating were related reciprocally and temporally to one another. Directions for future research and implications for intervention are provided. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Overvaluation of shape and weight in binge eating disorder and overweight controls: Refinement of a diagnostic construct.

Debate continues regarding the nosological status of binge eating disorder (BED) as a diagnosis as opposed to simply reflecting a useful marker for psychopathology. Contention also exists regarding the specific criteria for the BED diagnosis, including whether, like anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, it should be characterized by overvaluation of shape/weight. The authors compared features of eating disorders, psychological distress, and weight among overweight BED participants who overvalue their shape/weight (n = 92), BED participants with subclinical levels of overvaluation (n = 73), and participants in an overweight comparison group without BED (n = 45). BED participants categorized with clinical overvaluation reported greater eating-related psychopathology and depression levels than those with subclinical overvaluation. Both BED groups reported greater overall eating pathology and depression levels than the overweight comparison group. Group differences existed despite similar levels of overweight across the 3 groups, as well as when controlling for group differences in depression levels. These findings provide further support for the research diagnostic construct and make a case for the importance of shape/weight overvaluation as a diagnostic specifier. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential social comparison processes in women with and without eating disorder symptoms.

On the basis of predictions from social comparison theory (L. Festinger, 1954) and informed by findings from the social comparison and eating disorder literatures, hypotheses were tested regarding the social comparison behaviors of women with eating disorder symptoms and their asymptomatic peers. Results indicated differentiating social-cognitive processes for these groups. First, a greater tendency to engage in everyday social comparison predicted the presence of eating disorder symptoms. Second, social comparisons of one's own body to images of other women's bodies using a range of shapes and sizes also differentiated these 2 groups, with more self-defeating self-appraisals predicting the presence of eating disorder symptoms. Finally, self-esteem partially mediated the relationship between body-related social comparisons and eating disorder symptom status. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for research and practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An effectiveness trial of a dissonance-based eating disorder prevention program for high-risk adolescent girls.

Efficacy trials indicate that an eating disorder prevention program involving dissonance-inducing activities that decrease thin-ideal internalization reduces risk for current and future eating pathology, yet it is unclear whether this program produces effects under real-world conditions. The present effectiveness trial tested whether this program produced effects when school staff recruit participants and deliver the intervention. Adolescent girls with body image concerns (N = 306; M age = 15.7, SD = 1.1) randomized to the dissonance intervention showed significantly greater decreases in thin-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, dieting attempts, and eating disorder symptoms from pretest to posttest than did those assigned to a psychoeducational brochure control condition, with the effects for body dissatisfaction, dieting, and eating disorder symptoms persisting through 1-year follow-up. Effects were slightly smaller than those observed in a prior efficacy trial, suggesting that this program is effective under real-world conditions, but that facilitator selection, training, and supervision could be improved. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A 20-year longitudinal study of body weight, dieting, and eating disorder symptoms.

The article describes a 20-year longitudinal study of body weight, dieting, and disordered eating in women and men. Body weight increased significantly over time in both women and men. However, women's weight perception and dieting frequency decreased over time, whereas men's weight perception and dieting frequency increased, and disordered eating declined more in women than in men from late adolescence to midlife. In both women and men, changes in weight perception and dieting frequency were associated with changes in disordered eating. In addition, adult roles such as marriage and parenthood were associated with significant decreases in disordered eating from late adolescence to midlife in women, whereas few associations were observed in men. Despite different developmental trajectories, women demonstrated more weight dissatisfaction, dieting, and disordered eating compared with men across the period of observation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Food, mood, and attitude: Reducing risk for eating disorders in college women.

Food, Mood, and Attitude (FMA) is a CD-ROM prevention program developed to decrease risk for eating disorders in college women. Female 1st-year students (N = 240) were randomly assigned to the intervention (FMA) or control group. Equal numbers of students at risk and of low risk for developing an eating disorder were assigned to each condition. Participants in the FMA condition improved on all measures relative to controls. Significant 3-way interactions (Time × Condition × Risk Status) were found on measures of internalization of sociocultural attitudes about thinness, shape concerns, and weight concerns, indicating that at-risk participants in the intervention group improved to a greater extent than did low-risk participants. At follow-up, significantly fewer women in the FMA group reported overeating and excessive exercise relative to controls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The subjugation of the body in eating disorders: A particularly female solution.

Object relations theorists have explained the ruthless control of the body seen in eating disorders as an attempt to dominate the bad maternal object. It is more useful clinically to view it as an attempt to subjugate one's needy self experience. The patient's vehement denial of need makes it much more difficult to develop a self-object transference. The split between needing and not needing in the patient's subjectivity is reciprocally related to a specific split in the therapist's subjectivity between worry and neglect. Many more women than men develop eating disorders because women are more likely to use their bodies to contain their disavowed, intolerable need states, whereas men are more likely to experience the Other in this way. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)