The impacts of affordable housing development on host neighbourhoods: two Australian case studies

Proposals for the development of affordable housing are frequently opposed by local community members due to concerns about the potential deleterious impacts on host neighbourhoods. Using a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches, this paper considers whether there is any empirical basis for this opposition in the Australian context. First, a hedonic regression analysis is used to examine the impacts of 17 affordable housing developments on local property sales values in Brisbane. Second, the qualitative impacts of affordable housing development on neighbours are assessed through a doorstep survey conducted with 141 householders in Sydney. The results of both the hedonic analysis and doorstep survey indicate that the impacts of affordable housing development on host neighbourhoods are likely to be slight in the majority of cases. We found that affordable housing development can have positive or negative impacts on property sales values, but that these impacts are minimal where they exist. Our doorstep survey findings revealed that 78% of people had experienced no negative impacts as a result of affordable housing development in their area. The paper concludes by considering the practical implications of our findings.     

Who speaks for the poor?

There is in Australia a chronic shortage of decent housing affordable to the income poor. This shortage is exacerbated by increasingly vociferous opposition from groups of residents to proposals for low‐income housing development. The move towards a more inclusionary form of planning in the 1990s, based on an expansion of public participation strategies, often leaves planners torn between satisfying the demands of the vociferous few and a professional desire for ‘balanced’ development which considers a broader, if nebulous, ‘public good’. In urban consolidation debates, far more is heard from articulate middle class NIMBYs who fear that provision of ‘affordable’ housing will allow people of different (i.e. inferior) backgrounds to move into their areas, than from the lower‐income groups who want to realize their assets through subdivision of their property or who simply want the opportunity to afford somewhere to live. However inclusionary the planning process seeks to be, the articulate classes will become more actively and vociferously involved than others in attempting to shape discussion and outcomes. Is anyone able to speak for the poor or ensure their voices are heard?     

Florida's Planning Requirements and Affordability for Low-Income Households

Growth management states in the USA, such as Florida, Oregon, and Washington, require their local jurisdictions to plan for an adequate supply of housing for all current and future residents, including low-income households. This research uses regression analysis to test the relationship between the strength of local comprehensive plans toward affordable housing and subsequent changes in housing affordability for low-income households. Semi-structured interviews with local planners about their perceptions of the efficacy of local plans provide insight into the quantitative findings. The initial plans passed after Florida's Growth Management Act were not associated with subsequent changes in housing affordability, but more recent plans were. Planners in a number of jurisdictions indicated that Florida's planning mandate increased awareness among public officials of affordable housing issues and the tools available to address them, despite the state's weak oversight.     

土地使用权和经济适用房建设捆绑拍卖的机制设计

目前经济适用房供给问题比较突出,是由于地方政府和开发商出于自身利益的考虑均缺乏积极性。在经济适用房的供给问题上,政府显然起着主导作用,但同时也要充分调动社会的力量,才能尽快有效地解决这个问题。提供了一种供给方式,通过将土地拍卖和经济适用房建设捆绑的机制设计,引导市场力量承担经济适用房建设的任务,兼顾土地收益和经济适用房的供给。通过模型可以看出,政府在促进经济适用房建设和引导开发商参与的问题上要有决心和强硬态度;同时也要充分考虑开发商的利益,吸引开发商参与投标建设。政府还应采取有效措施保证和提高拍卖实现的概率。     

Why there? Developers' rationale for building social housing in the urban periphery in Latin America

Inadequate housing has become endemic to Latin American cities for over six decades. All that has changed has been who is going where. In the 1960s, the rural poor who came to the city solved their housing needs by building their own informal settlements on peri-urban lands. Today, the urban poor relocate to peri-urban housing complexes built by the private sector with state subsidies. Why have these new housing units for low-income households been built in peri-urban areas? This paper examines some of the mechanisms behind the location of the urban poor in cities, with a specific focus on the role developers have played in the construction of affordable housing in peri-urban areas of Brazil and, Mexico. The paper explores these mechanisms through interviews with affordable housing developers. We found that economies of scale – and not land prices – explain developers' preference for building in peripheral areas. Initial savings that accrue to developers due to lower land prices in the periphery are offset by the cost of having to build basic onsite infrastructure. Plus, large lots – which are available almost exclusively in urban peripheries – enable developers to achieve significant cost savings because these large lots make it possible for developers to build more than 500 units. In addition, weaker municipal regulations and fewer bidders, both of which are typical for projects in difficult-to-access peripheral locations, make for a shorter and easier approval process for these large housing projects.     

The Factors Driving the Escalation of Community Opposition to Affordable Housing Development

Community opposition to locally unwanted development is not inherently problematic, but it can be destructive where conflict between proponents and objectors escalates. This paper relates mixed-methods findings from a Sydney case-study where opposition to planned affordable housing projects was widespread but uneven. Five factors are identified that escalated individual opposition campaigns in this case: public notification procedures; sense of injustice; prejudice; strong campaign leadership; and the involvement of politicians. We argue that these factors will likely also escalate opposition to the planned development of other forms of critical social infrastructure, and that an understanding of them can help minimise destructive conflicts between proponents and host communities.     

PLANNERS’ ROLE IN CREATING FAMILY‐FRIENDLY COMMUNITIES: ACTION,PARTICIPATION AND RESISTANCE

A national survey of planners conducted with the American Planning Association in 2008 assesses planners’ attitudes about barriers and opportunities to creating more family‐friendly cities. The survey measured the extent to which planners promote the interests of families in zoning, housing, child care, transportation, recreation, urban design. and public participation. Regression analysis shows that communities that have more action on the ground in support of families (e.g., affordable housing, child care, walkable streets) also engage families more in the planning process and include needs of families in site planning and zoning. Action can lead to community resistance, but resistance is lower in cities that have more positive attitudes about families with children. Resistance is higher in communities that are ignorant about how to address family needs, and in communities that specify family‐friendly goals in their comprehensive plans. This research suggests the key to real action is family participation and addressing family needs in site planning and zoning.     

Community Housing in Tasmania: Who Applies for It?

Community housing is increasingly seen as an alternative to public housing by government. However, little is known about the demand for community housing, the relationship with public housing waiting lists and the flow of people between different housing tenures, such as public housing and private rental. In this article we analyse the demand for community housing in Tasmania. We examine who applies for community housing, why they apply and how their needs may differ from or overlap with demand for public housing. This research is based on 499 applications for community housing in southern Tasmania. Applications were made to a medium sized, non-government housing association—Red Shield Housing Association (RSHA)—between December 1998 and December 2001. Our research suggests that the majority of people applying for community housing were already on public housing waiting lists. Those seeking community housing differ little from applicants for public housing. However, women and sole parents were more likely to apply for both community and public housing while men and single applicants were more likely to apply only for community housing. This could be connected to who is likely or not to get into public housing and perhaps men and singles see less chance of getting into public housing. The implication is that low income earners are primarily concerned with access to affordable housing, which is in short supply, and the majority of applicants will apply for both public and community housing if given the opportunity. We note that the transfer of public housing stock to the community sector does not increase the supply of affordable housing stock or provide a greater choice of affordable properties to low income and disadvantaged households, although it could provide greater choice for some groups who do not perceive public housing to be an option.     

Lessons for LEED® for Neighborhood Development,Social Equity,and Affordable Housing

Problem, research strategy, and findings: Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design® for Neighborhood Development (LEED®ND) is a rating system designed to encourage sustainable development. I explore why and how most LEED®ND projects ultimately fail to meet the equity goals inherent in sustainability. I survey 114 LEED®ND accredited professionals (APs) and conduct 20 interviews with LEED®ND APs to illuminate the role of the rating system in developer decisions to include affordable housing in their projects. I also explore why nonprofit developers see value in seeking LEED®ND certification for their projects. Although a limited sample, it provides insights into how the certification process affects developer decisions. I find that the LEED®ND rating system does a poor job of encouraging developers to provide affordable housing: Only 40% of LEED®ND-certified projects include affordable housing. LEED®ND APs do not feel that the system offers sufficient incentives to overcome the risks and costs of providing affordable housing. Nonprofit developers might pursue LEED®ND to create savings for residents, but may be deterred by the cost of certification. Most respondents feel that the affordable housing credit should be increased and improved to provide adequate incentives to developers.

Takeaway for practice: Planners cannot count on LEED®ND certification to ensure the provision of affordable and mixed housing in sustainable neighborhoods. The LEED®ND system could be improved by weighting the affordable housing credit more heavily; developers could also be incentivized to build a greater mix of housing. The certification costs could be lowered or subsidized for projects with affordable housing and assessed on a per unit basis. Additional credits could be given to projects that significantly reduce utility costs for low-income residents.     

Inventing what Millennials want downtown: housing the urban generation in low-density metropolitan regions

ABSTRACT

Evidence is growing that a large subset of U.S. Millennials prefers to live in walkable communities near amenities. Yet, we know relatively little about how developers are translating Millennial preferences into “sticks and bricks.” This research helps fill the gap by exploring how real estate developers are cementing Millennial preferences into housing developments located downtown in the low-density metropolitan regions of Phoenix and Houston. Using data from the U.S. Census, regional media, and expert interviews, we find that developers perceive Millennials as needing housing that is authentic, flexible, socially conscious, and provides an inside/out, constantly connected lifestyle. These developers have incorporated these perceptions into new downtown projects through innovative building design and site selection, which has generated more urban housing options in the Phoenix and Houston regions, while also raising concerns about regulatory threats, Millennials’ ability (and desire) to age in place, and social equity.     

Prospects for walkable, mixed-income neighborhoods: insights from U.S. developers

In the U.S. today, there is a significant danger that walkable communities are becoming unaffordable to low and even moderate-income residents. This paper reports on the results of a survey of affordable housing developers that was conducted to provide a better understanding of what kinds of strategies could be used to substantially increase the prevalence of walkable, mixed-income neighborhoods from the point of view of developers. Thirty-four developers from around the U.S. were interviewed by telephone in November and December, 2010. Five themes emerged from the survey: the need for financing and access to capital and subsidy; the need for reform of financial regulation; the need for reform of land use regulation; the need for incentives; and the need for better communication and networking. Responses to the survey underscored the frustrations affordable housing developers are having with development more generally, and how those frustrations are amplified when trying to locate affordable housing in walkable, mixed-income neighborhoods. The paper concludes by suggesting strategies that could be employed to help promote walkable, mixed-income neighborhoods, beyond the obvious need for better access to capital: support for research that focuses on the benefits of mixed-income neighborhoods; documentation and illumination of best practices; and the fostering of communication and partnerships among a diverse set of advocates.     

Implicit Land Taxation and Affordable Housing Provision in England

The paper considers the proposal in England that a continuing requirement for residential developers to contribute directly to the supply of affordable housing in return for planning permission should operate alongside a new tax on land value increases due to planning permission. The paper asks whether it is right in principle for affordable housing to be supported by the implicit taxation of development. It is argued that in terms of transparency, clarity, and certainty explicit taxation is to be preferred to implicit taxation. It is thus suggested that once the new explicit tax is in place developers should no longer be routinely required to pay an additional implicit affordable housing tax. Affordable housing should, it is argued, be supported on the basis of need, not the resources available from the development process. The link between the provision of affordable housing and planning obligations should be broken.     

Private Developers and the Public Good: Can a Socially Constructed Market Deliver Quality Affordable Housing for Australian Cities?

Australian government housing policy relies on the private housing industry contributing to the supply of affordable and social housing in cities. However, the diminishing availability of suitable housing for many households raises the question of whether the private housing industry is interested in, or capable of, catering for this market segment. Engagement would require both inducements and regulation, partnerships with government and non-profit actors, and an alignment of attitudes regarding the need and responsibility for providing dwellings in housing sub-markets. This paper explores perceptions and strategies of actors regarding the role for the industry in the context of Melbourne.     

The contribution of Public–Private Partnerships (PPPs) to improving accessibility of low-income earners to housing in southern Nigeria

Public–Private Partnership is a relatively new approach to housing provision and was introduced in Nigeria to address the burgeoning housing challenges. To date, little is known about the contribution of this approach to improving the chances of low-income earners in gaining access to decent and affordable housing in urban areas in this country. Based on data obtained from a survey of selected government housing agencies in six cities in southern Nigeria, this study found that the Public–Private-Partnership approach, like most previous public housing delivery strategies, has not made any significant contribution to housing low-income earners; rather it is skewed towards providing housing for high- and middle-income earners. This paper identifies the state-market structure of the Public–Private Partnerships and the absence of a National Policy on Public–Private Partnership in housing in Nigeria as being responsible for this development. It therefore suggests that the development and adoption of a uniform National Policy on Public–Private Partnership in housing, government provision of land at no cost to private developers, lowering of the high building standards, and incorporation of assisted-self-help and incremental housing into the Public–Private-Partnership housing delivery system will ensure better results.     

基于GIS 的保障房空间分布对租售比的影响

保障房的供应对于商品房市场起到一定的分流作用,又是影响房屋租售比的重要因素之一;商业配套、与CBD 的距离、交通、教育资源等均会对租售比产生影响,但以往的研究没有注意到保障房建设对商品房市场存在的作用,因此,以南京市为例,利用2002~2014 年各区保障房建设的历史数据与近5 年南京市各大行政区租售比的平均数据,结合ArcGis、 SPSS 等软件对数据进行实证分析,研究结果表明:保障房的供应量与租售比成显著负相关,即保障房供应量多的行政区,租售比较小,租赁市场相对活跃,反之,租售比值较大,则销售市场更为活跃。对购房投资而言,在保障房供应较多的区亦即租售比较低的区投资,能够更快的回收资本。     

Affordability of housing and accessibility of public services: evaluation of housing programs in Beijing

Acute housing poverty and low housing affordability among low-to-medium-income households have become challenges in the pursuit of a harmonious society in China. Promoting housing subsidies and stimulating investment on affordable housing have been at the center of China’s housing policy. This paper analyzes the correlation of affordable housing program in Beijing with household affordability of adequate housing and accessibility to public services, which include elementary and middle schools, hospitals and public transportation. Economic and Comfortable Housing is studied based on unique database of eligible household and affordable housing projects. We find that the program fails to make housing affordable and accessible for eligible households. The implications of housing policy design in the context of the economic and social well-being of targeted households are highlighted in the study.     

澳门未来解决居住问题的对策——公共房屋

随着人口的增加,澳门住宅建造数量无法满足居民的需求。文章分析澳门住宅需求和存在的居住问题,提出在拥有85年建造公共房屋历史的澳门,公共房屋将能为特区政府和居民提供一条通向解决居住问题之路。文章还分析了以公共房屋作为解决居住问题的可行性、政府的作用、公共房屋的趋势等,力求让建筑和规划专业人士、城市开发和管理者更多地了解澳门,引发对解决居住问题对策的思考。     

保障性住房设计初探——2011年湖南省保障性住房设计竞赛一等奖获奖作品解析

为解决城市中、低收入家庭住房问题,湖南省拟在2011年~2015年期间,新建廉租房28.7万套,公共租赁房18.6万套。如何切实提升保障性住房建设项目的设计水平,在较小面积上实现基本居住功能,满足＂美观、经济、实用＂的要求,是政府主管部门和建筑设计单位应当共同思考的问题。本文介绍了保障性住房产生的背景,定位和设计原则,并以2011年湖南省保障性住房方案设计竞赛一等奖获奖作品为例,探讨了在新建保障性住房的设计过程中如何充分体现＂保障＂二字,以期能对以后的保障性住房建设产生一定的参考意义。     

Examining spatial patterns in affordable housing: the case of California density bonus implementation

California State Density Bonus Law §65915–18 financially incentivizes housing developers to produce affordable housing by granting density bonuses to those who designate a percentage of the total units for residence by low or moderate income households. By incorporating affordable housing units alongside market-rate units, state density bonus law fosters opportunities to enhance neighborhood level socio-economic diversity. This paper investigates the effectiveness of density bonus policy at promoting socio-economic diversity within the City of San Diego by examining locational patterns of density bonus implementation and neighborhood demographic characteristics. This study utilizes spatial and non-spatial statistical analyses to identify trends and correlations in density bonus usage, housing stock, and racial and economic characteristics. The results indicate that density bonus usage in San Diego has not fostered socio-economic integration; rather its usage is clustered in neighborhoods characterized by high concentrations of Hispanics, Blacks, and multi-family housing units. The findings underscore the need to refine supply-side affordable housing tools so that they are effective in a range of land markets, and not only in the traditionally lower value land markets where minority households tend to reside.     

Perceptions and Acceptability of Multihabitation as an Urban Low Income Housing Strategy in Greater Accra Metropolitan Area, Ghana

Urban low income households have often used multihabitation as a housing strategy to find affordable accommodation in the urban centres. Several factors have contributed to the gradual shift from multihabited compound houses to single family dwellings. These concerns have influenced the level of satisfaction of multihabitation and deterred real estate developers from engaging in such housing markets. Moreover, the changing socioeconomic conditions in urban centres resulting in the individualisation of family systems in the twenty-first century have undermined the benefit of multihabitation in urban low income housing provision. It is on this basis that a study is conducted to examine the perceptions and acceptability of multihabitation in the twenty-first-century urban low income housing provision in Ghana. Using both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection, primary data on households’ perceptions and acceptability of multihabitation in the twenty-first century urban low income housing provision was collected from households in five low income communities in Greater Accra Metropolitan Area. From the study, it emerged that although there were challenges associated with multihabitation living arrangement, residents perceived that there were still social and financial capital advantages as well as psychosocial benefits such as security and stability that emerged from the close relationships fostered under multihabitation. Hence, it is suggested that governments should adopt multihabitation in urban low income housing provision in the twenty-first century but with design modifications.