Microbiological, Physico-Chemical and Organoleptic Parameters of Apple Juice, Processed by Shungite

This paper is dedicated to results of studying microbiological, physico-chemical and organoleptical parameters of apple juice processed by shungite. Shungite is a natural mineral which has special structural composition, characterized by the existence of fullerenes and nanotubes. This paper explains the methods applied by the authors to prepare shungite for experimental research, to process apple juice by adsorbent, to determine the quantity of microorganisms in juice after it interacted with shungite, weight percentage of dissolvable dry solids, active acidity and quality parameters. In juice, processed by shungite, bacteria, fungi and yeast were detected. The authors made a comparison between microbial population in juice before and after its interaction with shungite. The paper refers to method under which shungite adsorbs bacteria, fungi and yeasts. The authors presented the results of studying dry solids content, active acidity of apple juice, processed by shungite at various temperatures and conducted assessment of apple juice quality after its interaction with sorbent. Through their research, the authors established rational parameters of apple juice processed by shungite under which the maximum reduction of microbial insemination is reached. The research proved that after apple juice interacts with shungite, its dry solids content and active acidity level remain unchanged. This paper confirmed high quality parameters of apple juice processed by shungite. Taking into account the obtained results, the authors concluded that use of shungite to process apple juice does not require expensive equipment, complex maintenance of the processing procedure, which reduce the cost value of a manufactured product.     

Significance of Biogenic Amines in Foods and Their Reduction Methods

The term ＂biogenic amines＂ defines decarboxylation products such as histamine, putrescine, serotonin, tyramine, phenylethylamine, tryptamine and also aliphatic polyamines. They can be detected in both raw and processed foods. In the recent years, there is a great interest in biogenic amines as they are associated with quality, safety and freshness of some foods, particularly fermented foods. The presence of biogenic amines in foods can also be used as an indicator of hygienic quality. Biogenic amines also cause health hazards due to their toxic effects especially in sensitive individuals. It is therefore important to control and reduce the biogenic amines. The reduction can be brought about by the use of high pressure, irradiation, packaging, additives, starter cultures and by reduction of decarboxylase activity and temperature. This review summarizes the significance, function, occurrence and formation of biogenic amines in different foods and their reduction by different methods.     

Preliminary Studies on Composition,Quality and Oxidative Stability of Commercial Avocado Oil Produced in Chile

Avocado oil is a relatively new oil in the market and is highly appreciated by the consumers because of its fine aroma, pleasant taste and health benefits. A study on the characterization of commercial avocado oils produced in Chile was conducted in order to discuss their quality parameters. The study was applied to two marketed avocado oils. The main analytical parameters evaluated to the oils were： fatty acid composition, total chlorophylls, total carotenoids, tocopherols, acid value, peroxide value, total phenolic compounds, polar compounds, oil stability, UV absorption and 3.5-stigmastadiene content. The fatty acid compositions of the studied oils were according with oil composition of pulp pure of avocado fruit. The analysis of tocopherols by high performance liquid chromatography （HPLC） revealed significant differences between the avocado oils studied. Total phenolic compounds, oil stability, UV Absorption characteristics, peroxide value, acid value, tocopherols content, total chlorophylls, total carotenoids and polar compounds were also significantly different between the commercial studied oils. All the above results show a different quality between both commercial avocado oils, showing that the sample C has worse values for the parameters of quality as those required by legislation in many countries. Also, 3.5-stigmastadiene content shows high concentration for one of the commercial avocado oil evaluated which demonstrates the presence of refined oil or that the oil has been submitted to high temperatures. On the other hand it is remarkable that despite the fact that there are many differences in quality parameters, both oils are labeled and marketed as extra virgin quality oils, demonstrating the need to regulate the classification of appreciated oils by the consumers.     

Preliminary Findings on Anticancer and Lymphocyte Stimulated Activities of Bioactive Compounds Extracted from Vietnam Carica papaya Leaves

In this study, the target bioactive compounds （e.g., alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins and other polar compounds） in Vietnamese Caricapapaya leaves were extracted. The cytotoxic activities of the papaya leaves extracts on the selected tumor cell lines, such as lung cancer cell line LU-1, carcinoma cell line KB, breast cancer cells MCF7 and leukemia cell line HL-60, were examined. Preliminary findings showed a high inhibitive activity of papaya leave extracts against the four tested tumor cell lines at the concentration of 100 μg/mL. Out of the bioactive compounds in papaya leaves extract, alkaloids showed the highest inhibitive activity （105.95% on MCF7 and 91.86% on LU-1）, followed by polar compounds （62.88% on LU-1 and 21.80% on KB）, and saponins （59.74% on MCF7 and 25.25% on LU-1）. Flavonoids has the lowest inhibitive activity on cell lines （e.g., 45.51% on MCF7 and 20.32% on LU-1）. Taken together, the results suggest that alkaloids have a relatively high inhibitive activity on the selected tumor cell lines and their stimulated concentration at 50% （IC50） values for on MCF7 and KB were 24.67 μg/mL and 33.56 μg/mL, respectively. However, the result pointed out the immunostimulatory ability of only polar compounds and saponins which could stimulate the growth of in vitro lymphocytes but not flavonoids and alkaloids. The SC50 （stimulated concentration at 50%） values of polar compounds and saponins were 287.87μg/mL and 192.99 μg/mL, respectively.     

Study of the Stability of Beef Tallow at High Temperatures and Comparison with Other Fatty Materials

Beef tallow is a byproduct of the slaughter industry. As a consequence, meat producer countries obtain a high amount of this low value-added fatty material. In Uruguay, it is generally used for food purposes or for biodiesel production. Globally, around half of the beef tallow produced worldwide is used for the manufacturing of food. To the best of our knowledge there are no published studies concerning the stability of beef tallow when exposed to high temperatures. The aim of this work was to study some Uruguayan beef tallow brands and compare its stability with that of the most frequently used frying oils in Uruguay （sunflower high oleic, rice bran and sunflower oil） to assess its suitability for frying. Stability was assessed by the oxidative stability index and thermoxidation in absence of food. Even though beef tallow＇s inherent stability indicated that it should be highly stable to oxidation, the majority of the analyzed samples exhibited a similar or lower stability than sunflower high oleic. This might be explained by a different composition in pro-oxidants and/or antioxidants between the beef tallows and the oils. According to the thermoxidation assays, which are carried out in similar conditions to those of a frying process, three of the beef tallow samples, sunflower high oleic and rice bran oil would be similarly suitable for frying, while sunflower oil and the other two samples of beef tallow evidenced a lower thermoxidative stability, thus not being recommended for this use.     

The Quality of High Pressure-Induced and Heat-Induced Hyuganatsu Marmalade

Hyuganatsu is a typical Japanese citrus with desirous smell and edible albedo. The objectives of this study are to establish a method for softening hyuganatsu peel without heating and a process for making a high pressure-induced （HP-） marmalade and to compare with heat-induced （H-） marmalade and citrus shaddock family marmalade. Firmness of peel was （greatest to least） pressurized at 500 MPa for 30 min, soaked in citric acid solution at pH 2.7 for 24 h, and boiled for 10 min, respectively. The cell walls of flavedo and albedo did not loosen after pressurization. However, after soaking or heating, the middle lamella of albedo separated. When flavedo was soaked at pH 2.7, 9.3% of pectin was extracted. The amount of naringin was the least in hyuganatsu 〈 pummelo 〈 grapefruit）, and juice sacs 〈 flavedo 〈 segment walls 〈 albedo, respectively. Thus, marmalade was processed. Albedo, segment walls and juice sacs of hyuganatsu were homogenized with citric acid solution （pH 2.7） and mixed with sliced flavedo. Then it was soaked for 24 h at pH 2.7. Sucrose was then added （final sugar 50%）, vacuum packed, then pressurized for 30 min at 500 MPa or boiled for 10 min, respectively. There was no significant difference in sensory evaluation between HP- and H-marmalade. However, the color, transparency and total evaluation of HP-marmalade were better than H-marmalade. Consequently, total evaluation of hyuganatsu-HP-marmalade was rated highly. So, hyuganatsu was considered to be more suitable for marmalade because it was more palatable than the others.     

Effects of Fermentation and Drying on the Fermentation Index and Cut Test of Pulp Pre-conditioned Ghanaian Cocoa （Theobroma cacao） Beans

Investigations were conducted to establish effects of fermentation and drying on the fermentation index （FI） and cut test of pulp pre-conditioned Ghanaian cocoa beans using a 4 x 3 full factorial experimental design with the principal factors being pod storage （0, 3, 7 and 10 d） and fermentation time （0, 3 and 6 d） to study the changes occurring during the fermentation process. The study also used a 4 x 3 full factorial design with pod storage （0, 3, 7 and 10 d） and drying time （0, 3 and 7 d） being the principal factors investigated to study the changes occurring during the drying process. FI and cut test of the beans were studied during fermentation as well as the drying process. FI of the beans increased significantly with pod storage and fermentation but decreased slightly during drying. FI of the unfermented beans increased slightly from 0.674 for the unstored pods to 0.763 after 10 days of pod storage. The FI of the fermented beans （six days fermentation） also increased from 1.390 for the unstored pods to 1.424 for pods stored for 10 days. It decreased from 1.389 at the start of drying for the unstored pods to 1.105 for pods stored for 10 days at the end of drying （seven days）. FI of all the beans were however, above 1.0 at the end of fermentation and drying for all pod storage treatments. Cut test revealed that storage of pods for 3, 7 and 10 days increased the percentage of brown beans by 66%, 94% and 72%, respectively, by the sixth day of fermentation. Percentage of brown beans decreased to 61%, 76% and 63%, respectively, for pods stored for 3, 7 and 10 d at the end of drying （seven days）. Cocoa pods can be stored for up to 10 days, fermented for six days and dried for seven days with the necessary formation of brown pigments characteristics of well fermented and dried cocoa beans.     

Changes in Nib Acidity,Proteolysis and Sugar Concentration as Influenced by Pod Storage and Roasting Conditions of Fermented Cocoa （Theobroma cacao） Beans

Changes in nib acidity, protein and sugar concentration during roasting of pulp pre-conditioned and fermented cocoa （Theobroma cacao） beans were investigated. A 4 - 4 full factorial design with the principal experimental factors as pod storage （0, 3, 7 and l0 d） and roasting time （0, 15, 30 and 45 min） were used. The roasted samples were evaluated for pH, titratable acidity, protein content and sugars concentrations using standard methods. Increasing pod storage caused consistent increases in pH with concomitant decreases in titratable acidity, whereas increasing roasting time caused only marginal and insignificant changes in pH but significantly decreased the titratable acidity. The protein content decreased significantly （P 〈 0.05） with increasing pod storage and roasting time. Reducing sugars increased marginally with increasing pod storage treatments whiles increasing roasting time significantly （P 〈 0.05） decreased the reducing sugars of the beans for all pod storage. The non-reducing sugar and total sugar content of the beans decreased significantly from 3.493 mg/g to 2.641 mg/g and from 9.284 mg/g to 8.891 mg/g, respectively, for pods stored from 0 to 10 days while roasting time caused slight decreases in non-reducing sugars with a considerable decrease in total sugars. Pod storage up to seven days decreased considerable the nib acidity （non-volatile acids）, non-reducing sugars and total sugars while roasting up to 45 min at 120 ℃ caused dramatic decreases in the nib acidity and reducing sugars with only marginal decreases in non-reducing sugars and total sugars.     

Does the Environmental Gain of Switching to the Healthy New Nordic Diet Outweigh the Increased Consumer Cost？

The new Nordic diet （NND） was designed by gastronomic, nutritional and environmental specialists to be a palatable, healthy and sustainable diet containing 30%-40% less meat than the average Danish diet （ADD）, ≥ 75% organics, and more locally grown wholegrain products, nuts, fruit and vegetables. In this study, the NND was based on economic modelling to represent a ＂realistic NND bought by Danish consumers＂. The objective was to investigate whether the ADD-to-NND diet-shift has environmental consequences that outweigh the increased consumer cost of the diet-shift. The diet-shift reduced the three most important environmental impacts by 16%-22%, mainly caused by reduced meat content. The surcharge to consumers of the ADD-to-NND diet-shift was ∈216/capita/year. In monetary terms, the savings related to the environmental impact of the diet-shift were ∈151/capita/year. 70% of the increased consumer cost of the ADD-to-NND diet-shift was countered by the reduced socioeconomic advantage associated with the reduced environmental impact of the NND.     

Investigation of the Aroma Profile of Green Tea Leaves Using Organic Synthesis and Conventional Analytical Techniques

Although many aroma components have been identified in green tea leaves, the aroma compounds contributing to green tea＇s characteristic odor have not yet been reported. The authors recently reported that aroma components with a matcha-like odor are present in both green tea and black tea prepared from the Sayamakaori tea cuttivar. This matcha-like odor is similar to the odor of commercial available matcha （high-quality powdered green tea）, and is a specific odor feature of green tea leaves. At present, the green-tea odor is thought to arise from the combination of a large number of constituents. Recent reports indicate that a complex interaction between olfactory receptors and odorants is important for the evaluation of the odors. Taking into consideration these findings, the authors investigated the aroma profile of green tea, focusing on the characteristic molecular structures of the constituents that give matcha-like odor. Using a combination of organic synthesis and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry plus gas chromatography-olfactometry, the authors identified aroma components with matcha-like odors in five other tea cultivars. This investigation also revealed that several compounds with a formyl group were important constituents of the aroma of green tea leaves, although the odor of each constituent was not individually similar to the tea＇s overall aroma. The authors found for the first time a group of key components that have the matcha-like odor.     

The Efficiency of Application Nanosilver in Technological Processes of Making Red Wine

The efficiency of using nanostructured silver in technological processes of making red wine has been studied with the purpose of substituting sulfur dioxide. For preparation of research objects, we used dry wine material of red grape variety ＂Saperavi＂. After completion of malolactic fermentation, the second racking the wine material off the lees and its treatment with antiseptics were carried out. Sulfur dioxide （Kadifit） and different doses of nanostructured silver were used. Microbiological investigation was performed on the presence of lactic bacteria after completion of malolactic fermentation and racking off the lees. The investigation of phenolic compounds was conducted at the following stages of technological processes： （1） after completion of alcoholic fermentation and racking off the lees; （2） after completion of malolactic fermentation; （3） after the second racking off the lees and treatment with antiseptics. By means of the HPLC analysis, the amounts ofcatechins, phenolcarbonic acids and flavonols were determined. It has been established that after conduction of malolactic fermentation in the process of racking the wine material off the lees and storage, the application of 0.6 mg/L of nano-silver for blocking of lactic-acid bacteria and inhibition of oxidation of phenolic compounds has the same effect as sulfitization with 50 mg/L of Kadifit.     

Relationship between Pectic Substances and Strand Separation of Cooked Spaghetti Squash--Part 2. Changes in Firmness,Histological Structure and Pectic Substances during Soaking in Pectin Extractants

The flesh of spaghetti squash separates into strands when cooked. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the cause of strand separation （during cooking） by soaking for 24 h at 35 ℃ in solutions with three kinds of pectin extractant. The changes in strand separation, firmness, histological structure and the pectin of flesh during soaking in 0.01 N HCI solution （pH 2.0）, 0.035 M ammonium oxalate solution （pH 4.0） or 2% sodium hexametaphosphate solution （pH 4.0） were investigated. When flesh was soaked in the HCI solution, the separation into strands and removal of calcium and magnesium were greater than that soaked in other pectin extractants. High methoxyl pectin was extracted by soaking in HC1 solution （pH 2.0） due to removal of polyvalent cations. This result shows that high methoxyl pectin glues strands together in the flesh of spaghetti squash. The shape of the cells which constituted strands was round; on the other hand, that of cells surrounded strands was elongated. When cooked in boiling water or soaked at pH 2.0, the shape of the former cells was maintained, but the latter cells, which contributed to adhesion between strands, broke down. Thus, the flesh separated into strands. When flesh was boiled for 15-30 min, pectin degraded and dissolved in the cooking solution; consequently, the flesh separated into strands and also the middle lamella of cell walls of strands separated. However, pectin remaining in strands maintained their crispness.     

A Modified Methodology to Evaluate Viscosity of Non-Newtonian Liquid Foods with a Flow Channel Instrument

Through experimental analysis of the liquid flows in a flow channel instrument, prompt evaluation of the physically defined viscosity of non-Newtonian liquid foods was investigated for development into a structurally simple and easy-to-use viscometer. For Newtonian and non-Newtonian test liquids, a relation between the friction coefficient and Reynolds number, which was dimensionless as derived from an expression of analysis as a gravity current, indicated a condition under which the flow in the instrument was laminar and under which an average shear rate was on the order of less than 1 s~. Prediction organized based on this empirical relation reproduced practically the flow curve determined for the liquid foods using a rotor type viscometer. Utilization of the channel instrument as a viscometer was formulated in terms of physical meanings of measurements such as the flow length and elapsed time.     

Mycotoxins in Brewing Grain Raw Material （Barley, Malt） in Russia

The levels of five mycotoxins （MT）： deoxynivalenol （DON）, T-2-toxin （T-2）, zearalenone （ZEA）, aflatoxin （Aft）, ochratoxin A （OTA） were measured in malting barley and malt samples by enzyme immunoassay （ELISA）, using test systems RIDASCREEN FAST （R-Biopharm, Germany）. 40 samples of malting barley, mainly from the Central part of European Russia and fewer from the Southern part of, and also some samples from Altai （Asian Russia） were analyzed during 2007-2011 years as well as 120 samples of malt from Russian malting companies. It was found that 17% of barley samples were contaminated with MT; in two cases （5%）, the MT concentration exceeded maximum allowable levels （MAL）. Among malt samples in more than half （in 56%） MT were detected, in 9% of samples, the MT concentration exceeded MAL （Aft-3 incidents, T-2-3 incidents, OTA-2 incidents, ZEA-1 incident）. Maximum levels ofmycotoxins in malt were found to be higher than those in barley. These facts support the idea about risky conditions during malting processing.     

Effect of Various Sources of Fat Ingredients on the Properties of Goat Milk Ice Cream

Goat milk ice cream was made with various sources of fat ingredients such as cream, soybean oil, rice bran oil and butter with the purpose of seeking the fat ingredient source instead of fat source from cow origin. The physical properties and the sensory evaluation of ice cream were then investigated. The firmness of goat milk ice cream mixed with rice bran oil, butter and cream were not significantly different before aging at 4 ℃ for 8 h. All of them gave the overrun between 51%-63% and the one with butter was the highest. The meltdown rate of all types of fat ingredients are not significantly different, being in the range of 0.86-0.88 g/min. According to sensory evaluation, the cow milk ice cream with cream was mostly accepted in all attributes such as appearance, smoothness, whiteness, melting in mouth and odor while the goat milk with cream and butter are the second and third. Nevertheless, the goat milk ice cream with soybean oil and rice bran oil were moderately accepted in overall preferences.     

Seoul Food Culture Viewed from High-Class Korean-Styled Restaurants and Korean Female Entertainers in the 1930s

Since Korea-Japan annexation in 1910, Japan has promoted the migration and/or tourism into colonial Chosun （old Korea） as an efficient cultural strategy for extending imperialism into Korean peninsula. In many tour guide books, the gisaeng （Korean female entertainers） was not only a symbol of Chosun tradition, but a main icon of Chosun tourism. The high class Korean-styled restaurants （yorijoem） were established as tourist attraction for Japanese inlanders, with singing and dancing gisaengs, ondol （Korean heating floor） house and Korean authentic cuisine, etc. The aim of this paper is firstly to explore the existential change of gisaengs in the yorijoem through its spatial significance in the 1930s, and secondly to explore the identity of Seoul local food culture and its metamorphosis under the colonial modernity.     

Studies of Microstructure of Kernels of Macadamia integrifolia and Its Hybrids through MRI, X-Ray Tomography and Confocal Microscopy

The aim of this study was to apply the existing techniques that enable examination ofmacadamia kernels to provide a better understanding of physico-chemical properties of kernels during postharvest processing. These techniques, such as X-ray tomography, could be applied for quality monitoring in the macadamia industry. The objectives of this study were to investigate the browning centre symptoms that usually occur in macadamia nuts-in-shell. The applied techniques included confocal microscopy, X-ray tomography and magnetic resonance imaging （MRI）. Five different varieties of macadamia nuts （A38, 246, 816, 842 and Daddow） were selected to include distinct characteristics, such as drop pattern and growing location. Analysis of the microstructure of kernels by confocal microscopy showed the distribution of possible brown pigment compounds as well as the distribution of lipids, carbohydrates and proteins inside macadamia cells. Physical properties data, including shell density and seed to volume ratio, were obtained by X-ray tomography. Magnetic resonance diffusion tensor imaging used in this study showed marked differences in microstructure which indicate that different varieties exhibit different microstructures expressed as fraction ofanisotropy and apparent diffusion coefficient that appear to be related to the occurrence of the brown centre. Hence, the findings of this study have potential to improve the existing postharvest techniques used in the macadamia processing industry. They will be of benefit to the industry in terms of improved quality control and cost reduction.     

Influence of Solvent Polarity and Conditions on Extraction of Antioxidant,Flavonoids and Phenolic Content from A verrhoa bilimbi

This paper presents the influence of solvent polarity and extraction conditions on the extraction of total flavonoid, total phenolic and antioxidants from Averrhoa bilimbi. The experiment was performed using a different solvent at different extraction conditions, including extraction time （15-240 min）, temperature （30-70 ℃） and agitation speed （50-300 rpm）. Results showed that yields of extraction varies with solvent polarity. Extraction using 50% aqueous methanol gives the highest antioxidant activity and flavonoid content. The highest total flavonoid content （193.3 μg quercetin equivalent/g dry weight）, total phenolic content （717.8 μg gallic acid equivalent/g dry weight） and antioxidant activity （77%） was achieved using 50% methanol, at 70 ℃ and agitation speed of 300 rpm. This work may be useful for obtaining higher bioactive compounds during the extraction process of A. bilimbi.     

Fat and Oil Oxidation by Electron Spin Resonance （ESR） Spin-Trapping Method

Oxidation of fats and oils during storage causes their degradation and loss of nutritional value and appearance. Electron spin resonance （ESR） is the only method that can be used to directly observe the radicals. In this study, the authors used an ESR spin-trapping method to study the oxidation of triacylglycerols （TAG） containing different fatty acids （FAs） commonly found in food. The ESR adduct signals were analyzed to study the effect of double bonds and the chain length of the FAs of TAG on oxidation. Oxidation was conducted by applying UV irradiation to TAG by dissolving it in N-tert-buthyl〈t-phenylnitrone （PBN）, which trapped the radicals induced in the TAG as an ESR adduct signal. The detection was clearly successful. There were no differences in the spectra of tristearin （18：0） and tripalmitin （16：0）; thus, it can be concluded that the length of the carbon chain of the FAs of TAG does not affect the oxidation reactions. However, the ESR spectra of tristearin （18：0）, triolein （18：1） and trilinolein （18：3） were clearly different due to the presence/absence of a new peak corresponding to new induced radicals, leading to the conclusion that double bonds play a major role in the oxidation reactions of fats and oils.     

Application of Selected Natural Antimicrobial Formulations for the Control of Food Pathogens in Fresh-Cut Cauliflower

In recent years, research on biopolymer based-coating containing natural antimicrobial agents is developing significantly. The objective of this study was to evaluate the antimicrobial efficiency of six formulations containing pre-selected natural antimicrobial compounds against Listeria monocytogenes, Escherichia coli O 157：H7, Salmonella typhimurium, the total bacteria and total yeasts and molds in cauliflower. Each formulation was subjected to a sensory test in parallel to microbiological analysis and the efficiency during storage at 5 ℃ was evaluated for the two best formulations, based on their ability to eliminate the target microorganisms. Both formulations were able to reduce all pathogens and total flora below detectable levels after 24 h of storage at 5 ℃. Using washing or spraying treatments, the two formulations were able to reduce Listeria to undetectable levels for 3 d. This efficiency was extended to 7 d when the formulations were incorporated into an edible coating. Washing treatment with the two formulations was also able to limit the growth of yeast and molds at levels lower than 2 log, for more than 7 d. The population of E. coli was reduced to below the detection limit during 14 d of storage, after washing treatment with the two formulations. The spraying treatment of cauliflower with the formulations allowed the use of very small amounts of antimicrobials while maintaining a fairly good efficiency, greatly reducing the potential costs of implementing this method in the industry. Future research may focus on development of nanoemulsion of antimicrobial formulations based on the developed antimicrobial formulations in this study to improve the better coating efficiency.