Estimation of uniaxial compressive strength from point load strength,Schmidt hardness and P-wave velocity

Uniaxial compressive strength is considered one of the most important parameters in the characterization of rock material in rock engineering practice. The study investigated correlations between uniaxial compressive strength and point load index, P-wave velocity and Schmidt hardness rebound number together with the effects of core diameter size. A total of 150 core samples at five different diameters (54, 48, 42, 30 and 21 mm) were obtained from sandstone, limestone and cement mortar. Ten saturated samples at each diameter (length:diameter ratio 2:1) were prepared from each of the three materials. The best correlations were found between uniaxial compressive strength and point load or Schmidt hammer values. The closest relationship was observed for the 48 mm diameter cores.      

Correlation between slake durability and rock properties for some carbonate rocks

The paper reports a study to assess the relationship between slake durability indices and uniaxial compressive strength, Schmidt hardness, P-wave velocity, modulus of elasticity, effective porosity, water absorption and dry and saturated unit weight for seven types of carbonate rocks obtained from south west Turkey. It was found that the dry unit weight, saturated unit weight and Schmidt hardness gave the best relationship with first cycle slake durability (r = 0.99) while uniaxial compressive strength has a strong relationship with fourth cycle slake durability (r = 0.94). The results showed little difference in the correlation coefficients obtained after the fourth cycle. It is concluded that, for the rocks studied, the first and fourth cycles provide sufficiently good data on the durability for preliminary engineering/design works and that the second to fourth cycle results could be estimated using the first cycle slake durability index (r = 0.99–0.97).     

Investigation of saturation effect on the relationship between compressive strength and Schmidt hammer rebound

Schmidt rebound values obtained by Schmidt hammer tests have recently been used to predict the uniaxial compressive strengths of both intact rocks and rough joint surfaces. The easy application procedure, short test duration and nondestructive nature of Schmidt hammer testing are the main reasons for which it is preferred by numerous investigators. To date, relationships derived between uniaxial compressive strength and Schmidt rebound values are generally valid only in dry conditions. However, while the adverse effects of saturation upon uniaxial compressive strength are known and emphasized in many studies, there has yet to be a comprehensive investigation dealing with the effects of saturation on Schmidt rebound values. Considering this deficiency, an attempt was made to investigate the effects of saturation on uniaxial compressive strength and Schmidt rebound values and to derive relationships between these two parameters considering the saturation degree. For this purpose, the uniaxial compressive strength and Schmidt rebound values of 14 rock types and one construction material were determined for dry and fully saturated conditions. According to results of laboratory tests, the adverse effects of saturation on both quantities were determined. The results showed that the levels of these adverse effects were dramatically different for the two parameters. Statistical evaluations indicated that relationships between uniaxial compressive strength and Schmidt rebound values are dependent on the degree of the saturation of intact rock material. By considering this, simple and multivariate regression analyses were performed and the resultant simple and multivariate equations were produced. In multivariate regression analysis, the degree of saturation and Schmidt rebound values are used as independent variables. All derived equations have high prediction performance and were determined to be statistically reliable.

     

Determination of mechanical properties of rocks using simple methods

Statistical equations have been determined for estimating the mechanical properties of rocks using non-destructive and indirect test methods. Nineteen different rock types were tested to obtain the relationships between Shore hardness, point load index, sound velocity, Schmidt hardness and porosity and uniaxial compressive strength, indirect tensile strength and abrasion resistance. Results of regression analyses showed satisfactory correlations.      

Dynamic mechanical behavior of some carbonate rocks

The effects of porosity, unit volume weight and Schmidt hardness on the quasi-static and dynamic compressive behaviors of some carbonate rocks were investigated using classical servo-hydraulic testing machine and split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) testing system, respectively. For dynamic compression testing, cylindrical samples 18 mm in diameter and 11 mm long were obtained from rock samples of light and dark travertines, lymra and beige marbles. For quasi-static compression testing, cylindrical samples were prepared according to the International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) standards. The results of the physical and mechanical properties of the rock samples have shown that the porosity, unit volume weight and Schmidt hardness, have significant effects on the compressive stress–strain behavior of the rock samples under dynamic loading. The results have also shown that the beige limestone samples have significantly higher dynamic compressive strength than the other carbonate rock samples.     

Evaluation of empirical estimation of uniaxial compressive strength of rock using measurements from index and physical tests

The uniaxial compressive strength(UCS) of rock is an important parameter required for design and analysis of rock structures,and rock mass classification.Uniaxial compression test is the direct method to obtain the UCS values.However,these tests are generally tedious,time-consuming,expensive,and sometimes impossible to perform due to difficult rock conditions.Therefore,several empirical equations have been developed to estimate the UCS from results of index and physical tests of rock.Nevertheless,numerous empirical models available in the literature often make it difficult for mining engineers to decide which empirical equation provides the most reliable estimate of UCS.This study evaluates estimation of UCS of rocks from several empirical equations.The study uses data of point load strength(Is(50)),Schmidt rebound hardness(SRH),block punch index(BPI),effective porosity(n) and density(ρ)as inputs to empirically estimate the UCS.The estimated UCS values from empirical equations are compared with experimentally obtained or measured UCS values,using statistical analyses.It shows that the reliability of UCS estimated from empirical equations depends on the quality of data used to develop the equations,type of input data used in the equations,and the quality of input data from index or physical tests.The results show that the point load strength(Is(50)) is the most reliable index for estimating UCS among the five types of tests evaluated.Because of type-specific nature of rock,restricting the use of empirical equations to the similar rock types for which they are developed is one of the measures to ensure satisfactory prediction performance of empirical equations.     

Correlating uniaxial compressive strength with schmidt hardness,point load index,Young's modulus,and mineralogy of gabbros and basalts (northern Greece)

An attempt has been made to correlate the uniaxial compressive strength and Young's modulus of gabbros and basalts with Schmidt hammer rebound number, the point load strength index, I_s(50) and the degree of weathering. Sixty three samples of gabbro and thirty of basalt from the ophiolitic comlex of Pindos zone (Northern Greece) have been collected by core drilling and tested accordingly. The results have been processed using techniques from the statistical software SPSS. Some of the equations produced show relatively high correlation coefficients, all significant at a significance level higher than 95%. The equations establish reliable prediction models for the uniaxial compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of the above rock types by means of simple tests which can be carried out in the field.     

Assessment of relationships between drilling rate index and mechanical properties of rocks

This paper examines the relationships between drilling rate index (DRI) and some mechanical properties of rocks in order to evaluate the effect of strength and indexes of rock on rock drillability. For this purpose, some index properties (in situ Schmidt rebound hardness (SRH), Shore scleroscope hardness (SSH), and point load strength (PLS)) and strength properties (uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) and Brazilian tensile strength (BTS)) values of 32 sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rock samples were determined. The relationships between DRI and both strength and indexes properties were evaluated using regression analysis and statistical methods. As a result, decreasing linear relationships were found between DRI and uniaxial compressive strength, Schmidt rebound hardness, Shore scleroscope hardness, diametral and axial point load strength.     

Predicting the physico-mechanical properties of rocks from electrical impedance spectroscopy measurements

Electrical resistivity values of eight different samples cored from a fault breccia were measured using an impedance analyser. The uniaxial compressive strength, elastic modulus, point load strength, Schmidt hammer value, P-wave velocity, density and porosity values of the samples were determined in the laboratory. Electrical resistivity values were correlated with the corresponding physico-mechanical properties using the method of least-squares regression and the derived equations were checked by the t and F-test. A strong logarithmic relation between uniaxial compressive strength and resistivity was found. The relation between elastic modulus and resistivity is significant and follows a logarithmic function. Density was linearly, and porosity was exponentially correlated with resistivity.It may be concluded that electrical resistivity can be used as a representative measure of rock properties, particularly for characterizing rocks for which regularly shaped specimen are difficult to obtain. However, the effect of different rock types on the correlations must be further investigated. Additionally, the effect of certain minerals on the rock's resistivity must be taken into account, especially when testing dry or partially saturated rocks.     

Estimation of rock modulus: For intact rocks with an artificial neural network and for rock masses with a new empirical equation

The elastic modulus of intact rock is used for many rock engineering projects, such as tunnels, slopes, and foundations, but due to the requirements of high-quality core samples and associated sophisticated test equipment, instead the use of empirical models to obtain this parameter has been an attractive research topic. In the rock mechanics literature, some empirical relations exist between the elastic modulus of intact rock and other rock properties, such as the uniaxial compressive strength (σ_ci), unit weight (γ), Schmidt hammer rebound number, point load index and petrographic composition. However, the past use of specific rock types is the main limitation of the existing empirical equations. In other words, they are not open to the general purpose use. To eliminate this deficiency, a total of 529 datasets, including uniaxial compressive strength, unit weight and elastic modulus of intact rock (E_i), were collected via an extensive literature review. In addition to these datasets, a further total of 80 datasets was obtained from laboratory tests performed on greywacke and agglomerate core samples for this study. To prepare a chart for the prediction of the elastic modulus of intact rock, an artificial neural network was constructed using the large database. In addition, after a brief overview of existing empirical equations, a new empirical equation, which considers RMR and the elastic modulus of intact rock (E_i) as input parameters, is also proposed using worldwide data.     

Evaluation of simple methods for assessing the uniaxial compressive strength of rock

Published data on 48 different rocks are used to evaluate the correlations between the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) values and the corresponding results of point load, Schmidt hammer, sound velocity and impact strength tests. The variability of test results for each test and each rock type was evaluated by calculating the coefficient of variation. Using the method of least squares regression, the UCS values were correlated with the other test values. Also, the test methods were evaluated by plotting the estimated values of compressive strength vs. the measured values of compressive strength for each test. The results indicate that the least variability is shown in the impact strength test. So, among the test methods included in this study, the impact strength test is the most reproducible test; but the variability of test results for the other test methods is within acceptable limits for most engineering purposes. Strong linear relations between the point load strength index values and the UCS values were found for the coal measure rocks and the other rocks included in this study. The Schmidt hammer and the sound velocity tests exhibit significant non-linear correlations with the compressive strength of rock. In the sound velocity test, the data points are scattered at higher strength values. There is no clear relation between the impact strength values and the compressive strength values for the coal measure rocks. A weak non-linear correlation was found between the impact strength values and the compressive strength values for the other rocks. All test methods evaluated in this study, except the impact strength, provide reliable estimate of the compressive strength of rock. However, the prediction equations derived by different researchers are dependent on rock types and test conditions, as they are in this study.     

灰岩强度特性的试验分析与数学模拟

以某电站所提供的灰岩岩芯为例 ,对该电站的岩芯的强度特性进行了研究 ,依据单轴压缩试验结果分别提出了风干状态下岩石的单轴抗压强度与高径比 ,自然状态、饱和状态下岩石的单轴抗压强度与横截面积之间的非线形关系式 ,该式可以很方便地在有关工程中为相似岩石估算其强度值提供参考、借鉴。天然状态下的岩石处于三向压缩状态 ,室内三轴压缩试验是岩石应力状态较为真实的反映。针对灰岩的三轴压缩试验结果 ,对其应力应变关系曲线进行了分析与比较 ,并进行了曲线拟合。结果表明 ,岩石的变形可以分为四个不同的阶段 ,围压对岩石的应力应变关系有一定影响 ,用多项式函数拟合应力应变关系曲线是比较理想的。     

Indentation hardness testing of rock

The indentation testing was used for characterisation of hardness of rock materials. During the test, an indentor under applied load penetrated into the rock surface forming a crater. The testing procedure was developed to be in line with other ISRM Suggested Methods. The results show that standardised indentation testing allows for characterisation of mechanical properties of rock and that there is a relationship between the value of the indentation hardens index and the uniaxial compressive strength. The value of the calculated index was used to classify the hardness of rock.     

Dominant rock properties affecting the penetration rate of percussive drills

Percussive blast hole drills were observed in eight rock types at an open pit mine and three motorway sites. The net penetration rates of the drills were calculated from the performance measurements. Rock samples were collected from the drilling locations and the physical and mechanical properties of the rocks were determined both in the field and in the laboratory. The penetration rates were correlated with the rock properties. The uniaxial compressive strength, the Brazilian tensile strength, the point load strength and the Schmidt hammer value exhibit strong correlations with the penetration rate. Impact strength shows a fairly good correlation with penetration rate. Weak correlations between penetration rate and both elastic modulus and natural density were found. Any significant correlation between penetration rate and P-wave velocity was not found.It was concluded that, among the rock properties adopted in this study, the uniaxial compressive strength, the Brazilian tensile strength, the point load strength and the Schmidt hammer value are the dominant rock properties effecting the penetration rate of percussive drills. Theoretical specific energy as defined by different research workers is proved also to be well correlated with penetration rate of percussive drills which verifies basic theoretical works on the subject. In addition, the point load and the Schmidt hammer test can practically be used in the field as a predictive tool for the estimation of penetration rate.     

Estimating the unconfined compressive strength of intact rocks from Equotip hardness

In order to utilize the Equotip hardness tester, originally developed in the field of metallic engineering, as an indirect method to predict the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of rock, laboratory tests were undertaken to establish the UCS, Equotip hardness (L-value) and porosity of nine rock types. Using existing data from Verwaal and Mulder (Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr 30:659–662, 1993) and the results of laboratory tests, an equation relating UCS (MPa) and L-value obtained from single impacts (L _s) and porosity (n %) was derived, which provides a close approximation of the UCS value. An equation to relate UCS and Equotip hardness is also presented, although this is less accurate. It is considered Equotip testing has advantages over the commonly used Schmidt hammer test.      

Physical and mechanical characterization of phyllites and metagreywackes in central Portugal

This work defines the physical and mechanical characteristics of phyllites and metagreywackes belonging to a schist–greywacke complex in central Portugal. The index properties, point load strength, uniaxial compressive strength, slake durability and Schmidt rebound hardness were determined. In general, the metagreywackes gave a higher strength than phyllites with the same weathering degree. Possible correlations and estimation models were established and compared with the equations obtained by different researchers.     

Estimation of strength and deformation properties of Quaternary caliche deposits

The aim of this study was to develop and evaluate statistical models for predicting the uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) and average Young’s modulus (E _av) for caliches, using some index and physical properties. The caliche samples, from Adana, southern Turkey, were of low strength and difficult to sample. X-ray diffraction and microscopy were undertaken and the following physical parameters established: unit weight, apparent porosity, Schmidt rebound number, Shore hardness, P-wave velocity, slake durability, point load, uniaxial compressive strength and average Young’s modulus. Simple and linear regression variable selection analyses were performed. The best relationships were obtained for UCS with P-wave velocity and unit weight and for average Young’s modulus with P-wave velocity, porosity and slake durability. Empirical equations are proposed, although it is emphasised that these may only be applicable for caliche of a similar geological character.      

Determination of in situ uniaxial compressive strength of coal seams based on geophysical data

The central issue for pillar design in underground coal mining is the in situ uniaxial compressive strength (σ _cm). The paper proposes a new method for estimating in situ uniaxial compressive strength in coal seams based on laboratory strength and P wave propagation velocity. It describes the collection of samples in the Bonito coal seam, Fontanella Mine, southern Brazil, the techniques used for the structural mapping of the coal seam and determination of seismic wave propagation velocity as well as the laboratory procedures used to determine the strength and ultrasonic wave velocity. The results obtained using the new methodology are compared with those from seven other techniques for estimating in situ rock mass uniaxial compressive strength.      

Predicting the sawability of carbonate rocks using multiple curvilinear regression analysis

Performance measurements of large-diameter circular saws were conducted on 13 different carbonate rocks in marble factories located in Turkey. Rock samples were collected from the factories for laboratory tests. Cohesion, friction angle, uniaxial compressive strength, tensile strength, Schmidt hammer value, point load strength, impact strength, Los Angeles abrasion loss and P-wave velocity values were determined in the laboratory. Slab production and rock properties were evaluated using multiple curvilinear regression analysis and estimation models were developed. Advancing rate of saw, saw diameter, depth of cut, tensile strength and impact strength were included for the best model. Alternative and more universal models were developed, including each rock property in turn together with the rotational speed of the saw. The developed models were verified by statistical tests.It was concluded that the slab production of carbonate rocks using large-diameter circular saws can reliably be estimated using one of the developed models. The models which include Schmidt hammer value, point load strength, impact strength and P-wave velocity have practical and economical advantages for the stone industry.     

含天然贯通弱面石灰岩试样的力学性质研究

 为研究天然弱面对岩石力学特性的影响,对40个完整和含有53°～90°倾角的天然贯通弱面石灰岩试样进行纵波速度测试、单轴和常规三轴压缩试验。试验结果表明：纵波速度与弱面倾角和单轴抗压强度并没有明确的关系。试样破坏有沿弱面滑移、穿切弱面和复合破坏3种形式：弱面倾角为65°～80°时易沿弱面滑移破坏,强度明显偏低;弱面倾角小于65°或大于80°时出现穿切弱面破坏,强度和破裂角大致满足Coulomb 强度准则;有2个试样发生复合破坏,强度介于两者之间。石灰岩充填弱面的材料与主体类似,因而与完整试样具有相同的内摩擦因数 0.944;据此可以从三轴压缩强度扣除围压影响,得到40个试样材料强度为30.3～177.1 MPa,平均值为121.3 MPa,标准差为32.6 MPa,大致服从正态分布规律。因最弱断面的方向随试样而不同,其黏聚力也存在显著差异,引起试样三轴压缩的强度和破坏方式的显著不同。